Belle Rose Ragins

Mentor Functions and Outcomes: A Comparison of Men and Women in Formal and Informal Mentoring Relationships

The authors examined the effects of the type of mentoring relationship and the gender composition of the relationship on mentoring functions and career outcomes reported by 352 female and 257 male proteges. Proteges of informal mentors viewed their mentors as more effective and received greater compensation than proteges of formal mentors. Proteges with informal mentors also received more career outcomes than nonmentored individuals, but no significant differences were found between nonmentored and formally mentored individuals. The gender composition of the relationship affected mentoring functions and outcomes, and protege gender interacted with the type of relationship to affect mentoring functions. Mentoring relationships are a critical career resource for employees in organizations . Mentors are individuals with advanced experience and knowledge who are committed to providing upward support and mobility to their proteges careers (Hunt & Michael, 1983; Kram, 1985a). Mentors help their proteges by providing two general types of behaviors or functions: career development functions, which facilitate the proteges advancement in the organization, and psychosocial functions, which contribute to the proteges personal growth and professional development (Kram, 1985a). The presence of a mentor is associated with an array of positive career outcomes: Proteges receive more promotions (Dreher & Ash, 1990; Scandura, 1992), have higher incomes (Chao, Walz, & Gardner, 1992; Dreher & Ash, 1990; Whitely, Dougherty, & Dreher, 1991), and report more mobility (Scandura, 1992) and career satisfaction (Fagenson, 1989) than nonproteges. Mentoring has also been found to have a positive impact on organizational socialization (Ostroff & Kozlowski, 1993), job satisfaction (Koberg, Boss, Chappell, & Ringer, 1994), and reduced turnover intentions (Viator & Scandura, 1991).

Marginal Mentoring: The Effects Of Type Of Mentor, Quality Of Relationship, And Program Design On Work And Career Attitudes

Employing a national sample of 1,162 employees, the authors examined the relationship between job and career attitudes and the presence of a mentor, the mentors type (formal or informal), the qual...

Perceptions of Mentor Roles in Cross-Gender Mentoring Relationships.

Abstract Survey data from 181 proteges in three organizations were used to compare perceptions of mentor roles in cross- and same-gender mentoring relationships. When controlling for differences in prior experience with mentors, organizational level, and other demographic variables, perceived mentor roles were not influenced by either mentor or protege gender. Significant gender interactions were found, however, for role modeling and social roles. Cross-gender proteges were less likely than same-gender proteges to report engaging in after-work, social activities with their mentors. In addition, compared to other gender combinations, female protegees with female mentors were more likely to agree with the idea that their mentor served a role modeling function. Implications and areas for future research are discussed.

Pink triangles: antecedents and consequences of perceived workplace discrimination against gay and lesbian employees.

A model of perceived sexual orientation discrimination was tested in a national sample of 534 gay and lesbian employees. The effects of legislation, organizational policies and practices, and work group composition on perceived sexual orientation discrimination were examined, as well as the attitudinal and organizational outcomes associated with discrimination. Gay employees were more likely to report discrimination when employed in groups that were primarily heterosexual and in organizations that lacked supportive policies and were not covered by protective legislation. Disclosure of sexual orientation at work was related to discrimination and antecedent variables. Perceived discrimination was associated with negative work attitudes and fewer promotions. Organizational policies and practices had the strongest impact on perceived discrimination and were directly related to outcomes.

Barriers to Mentoring: The Female Manager's Dilemma

Mentoring relationships may be critical for women seeking advancement in organizations. The infrequency of mentoring relationships for females suggests special concerns and considerations. This literature review draws upon current research to examine the interpersonal and organizational barriers female managers face in developing and maintaining effective mentoring relationships in organizations. An analysis is made of gender differences in the function, nature, and effectiveness of mentoring relationships. Recommendations and guidelines for future research and theory development are proposed. The groundwork for a longitudinal theory of mentoring and career development for women in organizations is presented. Implications for organizations are also discussed.

Burden or blessing? Expected costs and benefits of being a mentor

We investigated the relationship between anticipated costs and benefits of being a mentor, mentoring experience, and intentions to mentor among a sample of 275 executives. Individuals lacking mentoring experience anticipated greater costs and fewer benefits than experienced individuals. Anticipated costs and benefits were related to intentions to mentor, and this relationship varied by mentoring experience. The results suggest that mentoring may be an intergenerational process. Copyright

Making the invisible visible: fear and disclosure of sexual orientation at work.

Stigma theory was used to examine the fears underlying the disclosure of a gay identity at work. Using a national sample of 534 gay, lesbian, and bisexual employees, this study examined the antecedents that affect the degree of disclosure of a gay identity at work and, for those who had not disclosed, the factors that influence their fears about full disclosure. Employees reported less fear and more disclosure when they worked in a group that was perceived as supportive and sharing their stigma. Perceptions of past experience with sexual orientation discrimination were related to increased fears but to greater disclosure. For those who had not fully disclosed their stigma, the fears associated with disclosure predicted job attitudes, psychological strain, work environment, and career outcomes. However, actual disclosure was unrelated to these variables. The utility of fear of disclosure for understanding processes underlying the disclosure of gay and other invisible stigmatized identities in the workplace is discussed.

Gender and Willingness to Mentor in Organizations

We investigated differences in willingness to mentor among men and women in three organizations. When controlling for gender differences in factors relating to decisions to mentor (age, rank, tenure, and mentorship experience), women expressed equivalent intentions to mentor as men, even though they anticipated more drawbacks to becoming a mentor. Additionally, individuals with prior experience in mentoring relationships, either as a protege or as a mentor, reported greater willingness to mentor than individuals lacking mentorship experience.

The Way We Were: Gender and the Termination of Mentoring Relationships

The relationship between gender and the termination of mentoring relationships was assessed in a matched sample of 142 male and female ex-protégés. Counter to prevailing assumptions, when gender differences in rank, salary, tenure, and other demographic and organizational variables were controlled, women did not differ from men in the number or duration of prior relationships or in their reasons for terminating the relationship.

Heterosexism in the Workplace: Do Race And Gender Matter?

This article examined the effects of multiple group memberships and relational demography on the workplace experiences of 534 gay employees, 162 of whom were gay employees of color. Two competing models of multiple group membership were tested by assessing the effects of race and gender on sexual orientation discrimination and the decision to disclose a gay identity at work. Race and gender were unrelated to heterosexism. Lesbians were as likely to disclose as gay men, but gay employees of color were less likely to disclose at work. Relational demography predictions were supported for race and sexual orientation but not for gender, suggesting that gender similarity predictions may not apply to gay employees. More heterosexism was reported with male supervisors or work teams, and these effects were stronger for lesbians than gay men. Irrespective of race, employees in racially balanced teams reported less heterosexism than those in primarily White or non-White teams.