Benjamin Etzold

Clouds gather in the sky, but no rain falls. Vulnerability to rainfall variability and food insecurity in Northern Bangladesh and its effects on migration

This article presents empirical evidence on changing rainfall patterns in Kurigram district in northern Bangladesh, on the local peoples perception of these changes, and on their decision to migrate, or not, in order to cope with rainfall variability and food insecurity. Our study was conducted as one of eight case studies within the ‘Where the Rain Falls’ Project. Taking on a social vulnerability perspective, we show that migration from the region is not driven by climatic changes, but rather by the existing livelihood and labour migration systems. First, there is a distinct seasonality and thus rainfall dependency of rural livelihoods, which makes the rural population sensitive to changing rainfall patterns. Second, rainfall variability and food security are closely intertwined. Third, the distinct rhythm in the labour migration system is largely structured by seasonal hunger (Monga) in northern Bangladesh and by the demand for agricultural labourers and informal workers at the respective destinations. Fourth, persisting local patterns of social inequality shape both peoples condition of food security and their decision to migrate for work or not. We conclude that, instead of climate change, social inequality and food insecurity as well as structural economic differences are the strongest drivers of migration inside Bangladesh.

Human mobility in response to rainfall variability: opportunities for migration as a successful adaptation strategy in eight case studies

This article analyses the dynamics between rainfall variability, food insecurity and human mobility in eight case studies, namely Ghana, Tanzania, Guatemala, Peru, Bangladesh, India, Thailand and Vietnam. It covers a large spectrum of rainfall-related climatic events, including floods, drought, seasonal shifts and dry spells, and their impact on food insecurity and in turn on human mobility in approximately 1300 households in the eight case studies. It also summarizes the outcomes of focus group discussions and participatory research approach sessions held with communities in the villages that are affected by rainfall variability. The article compares the outcomes of the case studies and identifies the similarities and areas of overlap. It concludes that for some households – regardless of the case study – there is high potential for migration to be a successful adaptation strategy. Some other households rather find it hard to adapt to the situation in situ; among them, some cannot afford moving to other areas to improve their livelihoods and remain ‘trapped’ while others do move, but barely survive or are even subject to worse conditions. The article provides policy recommendations for policy-makers and practitioners that might be applicable for these, and also other countries exposed to the same climatic issues. Finally, the article provides an outlook with lessons learned for the benefit of future research.

Urban Food Security and Health Status of the Poor in Dhaka, Bangladesh

>Amartya Sen, in his seminal work on food entitlements and deprivation (1981), has effectively demonstrated that food security is first and foremost a question of access to food rather than of general availability. Furthermore, research has shown that not only the rural populations are vulnerable to food insecurity, but that it is a significant challenge to urban dwellers as well (Sen 1981: 32; Pryer and Crook 1988; Watts and Bohle 1993). This is particularly true after the so-called “urban turn” – more than half of the world’s population now live in urban habitats (UN 2008). The global food price hike of 2007 and 2008 again has taught national governments and the international aid community that an undisturbed supply of and access to food are the basic prerequisites for urban food security where basically all urban populations depend on food markets to access food.

Food Security in Dhaka: Between Global Risks and Local Vulnerabilities

Food security is a central issue in the numerous megacities of the global south. However, basic knowledge lacks about how food supply and distribution currently work in these agglomerations. Drawing on recent research in Dhaka, Bangladesh, in this contribution, the supply and distribution channels of rice are outlined. It is clarified how rice is produced, how the goods pass from the fields to the city and how they are distributed within the city. The contribution concludes by discussing the current situation of food insecurity of Dhaka’s poor citizens.

Rainfall Variability, Hunger, and Social Inequality, and Their Relative Influences on Migration: Evidence from Bangladesh

Research on climate change and migration usually assesses the effects of natural hazards and/or creeping environmental degradation on people’s livelihoods and their migration. This chapter looks at changing rainfall patterns, local perception of these changes, and the decision to migrate, or not, to cope with rainfall variability and hunger. Based on empirical evidence from a case study undertaken in Kurigram District in northern Bangladesh, this chapter addresses four key questions: (1) Is the rural population sensitive to rainfall variability? (2) How is rainfall variability related to food security? (3) Which labour-migration systems can be used by the local people to cope with environmental shocks and adapt to change? and (4) Do people migrate for work to cope with and adapt to the effects of rainfall variability or because of food insecurity and social inequality? Although rainfall variability can play an important role in people’s decisions to migrate, we argue that migration from the region is not driven so much by climate changes as it is by the persistent local patterns of social inequality and food insecurity coupled with the structural economic disparities that exist in Bangladesh.

Moving Beyond the Focus on Environmental Migration Towards Recognizing the Normality of Translocal Lives: Insights from Bangladesh

In the popular debate about climate change and adaptation in Bangladesh, migration is most often framed in a negative light: People are fleeing due to environmental changes and are displaced in the wake of disasters. Mobility is largely seen as a reaction and migrants as more or less passive victims of climate change. While numerous studies seem to prove this observation, others highlight migrants’ agency and see them as drivers of social transformations. Mobility opens up livelihood opportunities in multiple places. By living translocal lives, households with migrants might be more resilient to natural hazards, subtle environmental changes and economic turbulences. Seen in this light, migration is more than a risk management strategy. It is a question of livelihood choices, human rights and freedoms.