Benjamin L. Prosser

X-ROS Signaling: Rapid Mechano-Chemo Transduction in Heart

Reactive oxygen species produced by NADPH oxidase link mechanical stretching to calcium signaling in mammalian myocytes. We report that in heart cells, physiologic stretch rapidly activates reduced-form nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase 2 (NOX2) to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a process dependent on microtubules (X-ROS signaling). ROS production occurs in the sarcolemmal and t-tubule membranes where NOX2 is located and sensitizes nearby ryanodine receptors (RyRs) in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). This triggers a burst of Ca2+ sparks, the elementary Ca2+ release events in heart. Although this stretch-dependent “tuning” of RyRs increases Ca2+ signaling sensitivity in healthy cardiomyocytes, in disease it enables Ca2+ sparks to trigger arrhythmogenic Ca2+ waves. In the mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, hyperactive X-ROS signaling contributes to cardiomyopathy through aberrant Ca2+ release from the SR. X-ROS signaling thus provides a mechanistic explanation for the mechanotransduction of Ca2+ release in the heart and offers fresh therapeutic possibilities.

Microtubules underlie dysfunction in duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Decreasing microtubule density in a mouse model of muscular dystrophy reduces contraction-induced muscle injury. Microtubules and Muscle Dysfunction Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an inherited, progressive, and eventually fatal degenerative muscle disorder that is caused by the absence of the microtubule-associated protein dystrophin. Increased Ca2+ influx and enhanced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are detected in DMD muscle, although it is not known how these cellular events are connected to the microtubule network and the pathology of DMD. Khairallah et al. used mice that are a model for DMD (mdx mice). They found that a modest stretch of adult mdx muscle, but not of wild-type or young mdx muscle, stimulated the production of ROS by NADPH oxidase 2 (NOX2) through the dense microtubule network as the mechanotransduction element. This pathway, known as X-ROS, triggered Ca2+ influx through stretch-activated channels. Ca2+ influx, X-ROS production, and contraction-induced muscle injury were decreased in adult mdx muscle by treatments that reduced the density of the microtubule network or that inhibited NOX2. X-ROS production was increased in young mdx muscle by treatments that increased microtubule density. Transcriptome analysis revealed increased expression of X-ROS–related genes in human DMD skeletal muscle, suggesting that drugs that reduce microtubule density or block the activity of NOX2 could slow the progression of DMD. Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a fatal X-linked degenerative muscle disease caused by the absence of the microtubule-associated protein dystrophin, which results in a disorganized and denser microtubule cytoskeleton. In addition, mechanotransduction-dependent activation of calcium (Ca2+) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling underpins muscle degeneration in DMD. We show that in muscle from adult mdx mice, a model of DMD, a brief physiologic stretch elicited microtubule-dependent activation of NADPH (reduced-form nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) oxidase–dependent production of ROS, termed X-ROS. Further, X-ROS amplified Ca2+ influx through stretch-activated channels in mdx muscle. Consistent with the importance of the microtubules to the dysfunction in mdx muscle, muscle cells with dense microtubule structure, such as those from adult mdx mice or from young wild-type mice treated with Taxol, showed increased X-ROS production and Ca2+ influx, whereas cells with a less dense microtubule network, such as young mdx or adult mdx muscle treated with colchicine or nocodazole, showed little ROS production or Ca2+ influx. In vivo treatments that disrupted the microtubule network or inhibited NADPH oxidase 2 reduced contraction-induced injury in adult mdx mice. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis identified increased expression of X-ROS–related genes in human DMD skeletal muscle. Together, these data show that microtubules are the proximate element responsible for the dysfunction in Ca2+ and ROS signaling in DMD and could be effective therapeutic targets for intervention.

S100A1 and Calmodulin Compete for the Same Binding Site on Ryanodine Receptor.

In heart and skeletal muscle an S100 protein family member, S100A1, binds to the ryanodine receptor (RyR) and promotes Ca2+ release. Using competition binding assays, we further characterized this system in skeletal muscle and showed that Ca2+-S100A1 competes with Ca2+-calmodulin (CaM) for the same binding site on RyR1. In addition, the NMR structure was determined for Ca2+-S100A1 bound to a peptide derived from this CaM/S100A1 binding domain, a region conserved in RyR1 and RyR2 and termed RyRP12 (residues 3616-3627 in human RyR1). Examination of the S100A1-RyRP12 complex revealed residues of the helical RyRP12 peptide (Lys-3616, Trp-3620, Lys-3622, Leu-3623, Leu-3624, and Lys-3626) that are involved in favorable hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions with Ca2+-S100A1. These same residues were shown previously to be important for RyR1 binding to Ca2+-CaM. A model for regulating muscle contraction is presented in which Ca2+-S100A1 and Ca2+-CaM compete directly for the same binding site on the ryanodine receptor.

S100A1 Binds to the Calmodulin-binding Site of Ryanodine Receptor and Modulates Skeletal Muscle Excitation-Contraction Coupling

S100A1, a 21-kDa dimeric Ca2+-binding protein, is an enhancer of cardiac Ca2+ release and contractility and a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of cardiomyopathy. The role of S100A1 in skeletal muscle has been less well defined. Additionally, the precise molecular mechanism underlying S100A1 modulation of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release in striated muscle has not been fully elucidated. Here, utilizing a genetic approach to knock out S100A1, we demonstrate a direct physiological role of S100A1 in excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscle. We show that the absence of S100A1 leads to decreased global myoplasmic Ca2+ transients following electrical excitation. Using high speed confocal microscopy, we demonstrate with high temporal resolution depressed activation of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release in S100A1-/- muscle fibers. Through competition assays with sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles and through tryptophan fluorescence experiments, we also identify a novel S100A1-binding site on the cytoplasmic face of the intact ryanodine receptor that is conserved throughout striated muscle and corresponds to a previously identified calmodulin-binding site. Using a 12-mer peptide of this putative binding domain, we demonstrate low micromolar binding affinity to S100A1. NMR spectroscopy reveals this peptide binds within the Ca2+-dependent hydrophobic pocket of S100A1. Taken together, these data suggest that S100A1 plays a significant role in skeletal muscle excitation-contraction coupling, primarily through specific interactions with a conserved binding domain of the ryanodine receptor. This warrants further investigation into the use of S100A1 as a therapeutic target for the treatment of both cardiac and skeletal myopathies.

Detyrosinated microtubules buckle and bear load in contracting cardiomyocytes

A close-up view of cardiac cell mechanics Heart cells contain a very well-organized array of cytoskeletal elements, including actin and microtubules that help them to perform their mechanical functions. Robison et al. used an advanced imaging approach to study the inner workings of mouse cardiac myocytes in real time. They observed microtubule “buckling” under contractile force in beating cardiomyocytes. This buckling was regulated by interaction with desmin and by the tubulin tyrosination state. The findings suggest a role for stable detyrosinated microtubules whose buckling under tension contributes to cardiac muscle strength. Science, this issue p. 10.1126/science.aaf0659 Posttranslational detyrosination of the microtubule network influences the mechanical properties of heart cells. INTRODUCTION Along with its well-documented role as a track for cargo transport, the microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton is linked to diverse structural and signaling roles in the cardiac myocyte. MTs can facilitate the rapid transmission of mechanical signals to intracellular effectors, a process termed mechanotransduction. A proliferated MT network may also provide a mechanical resistance to cardiac contraction in certain disease states. Yet our understanding of how MTs resist compression and transmit mechanical signals has been impaired by a lack of direct observation and by the unpredictable effects of blunt pharmacological tools. RATIONALE Direct observation of MT mechanical behavior during contraction is the most straightforward way to elucidate the mechanisms underlying MT contributions to heart function. Advances in imaging have made this possible at temporal and spatial resolutions that permit quantification of MT geometry during the contraction cycle. Furthermore, recent evidence suggests that posttranslational modification of the microtubule network, specifically “detyrosination,” regulates cardiac mechano-transduction. This raises the question of whether detyrosination alters how microtubules respond to the changing mechanical loads inherent to each cardiac cycle. To answer these questions, we used advanced imaging techniques to explore MT behavior in beating murine cardiomyocytes. RESULTS During contraction, MTs must somehow accommodate the changing geometry of the myocyte. In a typical myocyte, this was accomplished by deforming into a sinusoidal buckled configuration that returned to an identical resting configuration after each beat. The periodic nature of these buckles coincided with the repeating contractile units of the cardiomyocyte known as sarcomeres, which suggested a direct interaction. Desmin intermediate filaments were identified as a key component of an anchoring complex that links MTs to the sarcomere and imparts structural organization to the MT network. The physical link between microtubules and the sarcomere was highly dependent on detyrosination. In myocytes where detyrosination was suppressed, MTs often accommodated the contraction by sliding past each other rather than buckling as the sarcomere shortened. Disrupting the MT-sarcomere interaction allowed the sarcomere to shorten farther and faster, as well as decreased overall stiffness. Conversely, promoting detyrosination was sufficient to increase myocyte stiffness and impede the contraction of the myocyte. Consistently, clinical data showed a direct correlation between excess detyrosination and functional decline in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. CONCLUSION Thus, microtubules can provide mechanical resistance to the myocyte through interactions with the sarcomere, forming load-bearing spring elements in parallel with the contractile apparatus. These interactions are mediated by a detyrosination-dependent association with desmin that regulates myocyte stiffness and contractility. Excess detyrosination promotes the interaction between MTs and the sarcomere, which increases resistance to contraction and may contribute to reductions in cardiac function in certain disease states. MTs in the beating heart. When a cardiomyocyte (A) is compressed (B), as occurs during systolic contraction, MTs buckle under load. In a typical myocyte (C), detyrosinated MTs are mechanically coupled to the sarcomere and buckle during contraction (D). When detyrosination is reduced (E), this interaction is disrupted and MTs buckle less, which allows sarcomeres to shorten and stretch with less resistance. The microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton can transmit mechanical signals and resist compression in contracting cardiomyocytes. How MTs perform these roles remains unclear because of difficulties in observing MTs during the rapid contractile cycle. Here, we used high spatial and temporal resolution imaging to characterize MT behavior in beating mouse myocytes. MTs deformed under contractile load into sinusoidal buckles, a behavior dependent on posttranslational “detyrosination” of α-tubulin. Detyrosinated MTs associated with desmin at force-generating sarcomeres. When detyrosination was reduced, MTs uncoupled from sarcomeres and buckled less during contraction, which allowed sarcomeres to shorten and stretch with less resistance. Conversely, increased detyrosination promoted MT buckling, stiffened the myocyte, and correlated with impaired function in cardiomyopathy. Thus, detyrosinated MTs represent tunable, compression-resistant elements that may impair cardiac function in disease.

Detyrosinated microtubules modulate mechanotransduction in heart and skeletal muscle

In striated muscle, X-ROS is the mechanotransduction pathway by which mechanical stress transduced by the microtubule network elicits reactive oxygen species. X-ROS tunes Ca2+ signalling in healthy muscle, but in diseases such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), microtubule alterations drive elevated X-ROS, disrupting Ca2+ homeostasis and impairing function. Here we show that detyrosination, a post-translational modification of α-tubulin, influences X-ROS signalling, contraction speed and cytoskeletal mechanics. In the mdx mouse model of DMD, the pharmacological reduction of detyrosination in vitro ablates aberrant X-ROS and Ca2+ signalling, and in vivo it protects against hallmarks of DMD, including workload-induced arrhythmias and contraction-induced injury in skeletal muscle. We conclude that detyrosinated microtubules increase cytoskeletal stiffness and mechanotransduction in striated muscle and that targeting this post-translational modification may have broad therapeutic potential in muscular dystrophies.

Physiology, structure, and susceptibility to injury of skeletal muscle in mice lacking keratin 19-based and desmin-based intermediate filaments

Intermediate filaments, composed of desmin and of keratins, play important roles in linking contractile elements to each other and to the sarcolemma in striated muscle. Our previous results show that the tibialis anterior (TA) muscles of mice lacking keratin 19 (K19) lose costameres, accumulate mitochondria under the sarcolemma, and generate lower specific tension than controls. Here we compare the physiology and morphology of TA muscles of mice lacking K19 with muscles lacking desmin or both proteins [double knockout (DKO)]. K19-/- mice and DKO mice showed a threefold increase in the levels of creatine kinase (CK) in the serum. The absence of desmin caused a larger change in specific tension (-40%) than the absence of K19 (-19%) and played the predominant role in contractile function (-40%) and decreased tolerance to exercise in the DKO muscle. By contrast, the absence of both proteins was required to obtain a significantly greater loss of contractile torque after injury (-48%) compared with wild type (-39%), as well as near-complete disruption of costameres. The DKO muscle also showed a significantly greater misalignment of myofibrils than either mutant alone. In contrast, large subsarcolemmal gaps and extensive accumulation of mitochondria were only seen in K19-null TA muscles, and the absence of both K19 and desmin yielded milder phenotypes. Our results suggest that keratin filaments containing K19- and desmin-based intermediate filaments can play independent, complementary, or antagonistic roles in the physiology and morphology of fast-twitch skeletal muscle.

X-ROS signalling is enhanced and graded by cyclic cardiomyocyte stretch

AIMS A sustained, single stretch of a cardiomyocyte activates a transient production of reactive oxygen species by membrane-located NADPH oxidase 2 (Nox2). This NoX2-dependent ROS (X-ROS) tunes cardiac Ca(2+) signalling by reversibly sensitizing sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) release channels. In contrast to static length changes, working heart cells are cyclically stretched and shortened in the living animal. Additionally, this stretch cycle is constantly varied by changes in the pre-load and heart rate. Thus, the objective of this study was (i) to characterize X-ROS signalling during stretch-shortening cycles and (ii) to evaluate how the amplitude (pre-load) and frequency (heart rate) of cell stretch affects X-ROS and Ca(2+) signalling. METHODS AND RESULTS Single adult rat cardiomyocytes were attached to MyoTak™-coated micro-rods and stretched, while ROS production and Ca(2+) signals were monitored optically. Although a sustained stretch led to only a transient burst of ROS, cyclic stretch-shortening cycles led to a steady-state elevation of ROS production. Importantly, this new redox state was graded by both the amplitude of stretch (3-15%) and cycle frequency (1-4 Hz). Elevated ROS production enhanced Ca(2+) signalling sensitivity as measured by the Ca(2+) spark rate. CONCLUSION The steady-state level of ROS production in a cardiomyocyte is graded by the amplitude and frequency of cell stretch. Thus, mechanical changes that depend on the pre-load and heart rate regulate a dynamic redox balance that tunes cellular Ca(2+) signalling.

S100A1 and calmodulin regulation of ryanodine receptor in striated muscle

The release of Ca2+ ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum through ryanodine receptor calcium release channels represents the critical step linking electrical excitation to muscular contraction in the heart and skeletal muscle (excitation-contraction coupling). Two small Ca2+ binding proteins, S100A1 and calmodulin, have been demonstrated to bind and regulate ryanodine receptor in vitro. This review focuses on recent work that has revealed new information about the endogenous roles of S100A1 and calmodulin in regulating skeletal muscle excitation-contraction coupling. S100A1 and calmodulin bind to an overlapping domain on the ryanodine receptor type 1 to tune the Ca2+ release process, and thereby regulate skeletal muscle function. We also discuss past, current and future work surrounding the regulation of ryanodine receptors by calmodulin and S100A1 in both cardiac and skeletal muscle, and the implications for excitation-contraction coupling.

Contractile Function During Angiotensin-II Activation Increased Nox2 Activity Modulates Cardiac Calcium Handling via Phospholamban Phosphorylation

Background Renin-angiotensin system activation is a feature of many cardiovascular conditions. Activity of myocardial reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase 2 (NADPH oxidase 2 or Nox2) is enhanced by angiotensin II (Ang II) and contributes to increased hypertrophy, fibrosis, and adverse remodeling. Recent studies found that Nox2-mediated reactive oxygen species production modulates physiological cardiomyocyte function. Objectives This study sought to investigate the effects of cardiomyocyte Nox2 on contractile function during increased Ang II activation. Methods We generated a cardiomyocyte-targeted Nox2-transgenic mouse model and studied the effects of in vivo and ex vivo Ang II stimulation, as well as chronic aortic banding. Results Chronic subpressor Ang II infusion induced greater cardiac hypertrophy in transgenic than wild-type mice but unexpectedly enhanced contractile function. Acute Ang II treatment also enhanced contractile function in transgenic hearts in vivo and transgenic cardiomyocytes ex vivo. Ang II–stimulated Nox2 activity increased sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ uptake in transgenic mice, increased the Ca2+ transient and contractile amplitude, and accelerated cardiomyocyte contraction and relaxation. Elevated Nox2 activity increased phospholamban phosphorylation in both hearts and cardiomyocytes, related to inhibition of protein phosphatase 1 activity. In a model of aortic banding–induced chronic pressure overload, heart function was similarly depressed in transgenic and wild-type mice. Conclusions We identified a novel mechanism in which Nox2 modulates cardiomyocyte SR Ca2+ uptake and contractile function through redox-regulated changes in phospholamban phosphorylation. This mechanism can drive increased contractility in the short term in disease states characterized by enhanced renin-angiotensin system activation.