Berit Hasler

Policies for agricultural nitrogen management—trends, challenges and prospects for improved efficiency in Denmark

With more than 60% of the land farmed, with vulnerable freshwater and marine environments, and with one of the most intensive, export-oriented livestock sectors in the world, the nitrogen (N) pollution pressure from Danish agriculture is severe. Consequently, a series of policy action plans have been implemented since the mid 1980s with significant effects on the surplus, efficiency and environmental loadings of N. This paper reviews the policies and actions taken and their ability to mitigate effects of reactive N (Nr) while maintaining agricultural production. In summary, the average N-surplus has been reduced from approximately 170 kg N ha?1 yr?1 to below 100 kg N ha?1 yr?1 during the past 30 yrs, while the overall N-efficiency for the agricultural sector (crop?+?livestock farming) has increased from around 20?30% to 40?45%, the N-leaching from the field root zone has been halved, and N losses to the aquatic and atmospheric environment have been significantly reduced. This has been achieved through a combination of approaches and measures (ranging from command and control legislation, over market-based regulation and governmental expenditure to information and voluntary action), with specific measures addressing the whole N cascade, in order to improve the quality of ground- and surface waters, and to reduce the deposition to terrestrial natural ecosystems. However, there is still a major challenge in complying with the EU Water Framework and Habitats Directives, calling for new approaches, measures and technologies to mitigate agricultural N losses and control N flows.

Mussels as a tool for mitigation of nutrients in the marine environment.

Long-line mussel farming has been proposed as a mitigation tool for removal of excess nutrients in eutrophic coastal waters. A full-scale mussel farm optimized for cost efficient nutrient removal was established in the eutrophic Skive Fjord, Denmark where biological and economic parameters related to nutrient removal was monitored throughout a full production cycle (1 yr). The results showed that it was possible to obtain a high area specific biomass of 60 t WW ha(-1) eqvivalent to a nitrogen and phosphorus removal of 0.6-0.9 and 0.03-0.04 t ha(-1)yr, respectively. The analysis of the costs related to establishment, maintenance and harvest revealed that mussel production optimized for mitigation can be carried out at a lower cost compared to mussel production for (human) consumption. The costs for nutrient removal was 14.8 € kg(-1)N making mitigation mussel production a cost-efficient measure compared to the most expensive land-based measures.

Scenario realism and welfare estimates in choice experiments – A non-market valuation study on the European water framework directive

Using choice experiment data for economic valuation we analyse how disbelief in survey information could affect the retrieved welfare estimates. We distinguish between two types of survey information to the respondents. The first type of information concerns the current environmental status of a water body. This information is provided prior to the valuation questions and the corresponding beliefs in the provided information are also elicited before valuation. The second type of information concerns the proposed improvements in the environmental status of the water body. We find that average welfare measures differ considerably according to whether respondents who disagree with the status quo levels and find proposed scenarios unlikely are included or not.

Benefits of meeting nutrient reduction targets for the Baltic Sea - a contingent valuation study in the nine coastal states

This paper presents the results of an internationally coordinated contingent valuation study on the benefits of reducing marine eutrophication in the Baltic Sea according to current policy targets. With over 10,500 respondents from the nine coastal states around the sea, we examine public willingness to pay (WTP) for reduced eutrophication and its determinants. There are considerable differences in mean WTP between countries, with Swedes being willing to pay the most and Latvians the least. The aggregate annual WTP is approximately €3600 million. In addition, we find that countries are heterogeneous in terms of the effects of income, attitudes and familiarity on WTP. Income elasticities of WTP are below 1 for all countries, ranging between 0.1 and 0.5. Attitudes and personal experience of eutrophication are important determinants of WTP, but the specific effects differ between countries. The findings can be used in economic analyses for the European Union (EU) Marine Strategy Framework Directive and to justify additional eutrophication reduction measures in the Baltic Sea.

Accounting for nitrogen in Denmark—a structural decomposition analysis

Abstract This paper examines the environmental-economic cycle for nitrogen in Denmark based on nitrogen input and output from different economic sectors. An input-output model is employed together with a nitrogen mass balance to apportion total nitrogen loading by final demand and estimate export and import of nitrogen from foreign trade. The changes in agricultural and industrial nitrogen loading from the mid 1960s to the late 1980s are broken down into changes related to different technological and economic factors. The analysis reveals that technological change (intensified agricultural production) and economic growth (especially rising exports) are the key factors, structural shifts (changes in commodity mix in the household and production sectors) generally being of less importance.

Multifunctional agriculture and multifunctional landscapes - land use as an interface

In contemporary sciences dealing with cultural landscapes, the concept of multifunctionality has gained increasing attention in the last decade. The scientific literature displays several attempts to frame the concept (e.g DeVries 2000; Anon 2001; de Groot et al. 2002) but there is much frustration regarding proper sets of broadly based definitions and clear statements concerning the authors’ scientific points of departure (Anon 2001). Multifunctionality is on the one hand used to characterize the activities in the primary production sector, and the land use reflecting the material consequences of the various demands set by the society on land territories — these approaches relate to the agricultural understanding of multifunctionality. On the other hand, multifunctionality is used to characterize the landscape per se. The primary production sector (i.e. agriculture, forestry, horticulture and related land dependent activities) is considered having a primary or main function (production), and related joint productions, typically including a mix of material and non-tangible goods as well as a mix of private and public goods (externalities). Production of food and fibres is generally considered the primary products in this context, but the primary sector produces other material goods too, such as CO2 sequestration, groundwater recharge etc.

Valuing the commons: An international study on the recreational benefits of the Baltic Sea

The Baltic Sea provides benefits to all of the nine nations along its coastline, with some 85 million people living within the catchment area. Achieving improvements in water quality requires international cooperation. The likelihood of effective cooperation is known to depend on the distribution across countries of the benefits and costs of actions needed to improve water quality. In this paper, we estimate the benefits associated with recreational use of the Baltic Sea in current environmental conditions using a travel cost approach, based on data from a large, standardized survey of households in each of the 9 Baltic Sea states. Both the probability of engaging in recreation (participation) and the number of visits people make are modeled. A large variation in the number of trips and the extent of participation is found, along with large differences in current annual economic benefits from Baltic Sea recreation. The total annual recreation benefits are close to 15 billion EUR. Under a water quality improvement scenario, the proportional increases in benefits range from 7 to 18% of the current annual benefits across countries. Depending on how the costs of actions are distributed, this could imply difficulties in achieving more international cooperation to achieve such improvements.

A practical CBA-based screening procedure for identification of river basins where the costs of fulfilling the WFD requirements may be disproportionate – applied to the case of Denmark

The European Unions (EU) Water Framework Directive (WFD) is implemented as an instrument to obtain good ecological status in waterbodies of Europe. The directive recognises the need to accommodate social and economic considerations to obtain cost-effective implementation of the directive. In particular, EU member states can apply for various exemptions from the objectives if costs are considered disproportionate, e.g. compared to potential benefits. This paper addresses the costs and benefits of achieving good ecological status and demonstrates a methodology designed to investigate disproportionate costs at the national level. Specifically, we propose to use a screening procedure based on a relatively conservative cost–benefit analysis (CBA) as a first step towards identifying areas where costs could be disproportionate. We provide an empirical example by applying the proposed screening procedure to a total of 23 river basin areas in Denmark where costs and benefits are estimated for each of the areas. The results suggest that costs could be disproportionate in several Danish river basins. The sensitivity analysis further helps to pinpoint two or three basins where we suggest that much more detailed and elaborate CBAs should be targeted in order to properly ascertain whether costs are indeed disproportionate.

Limits and targets for a regional sustainability assessment: an interdisciplinary exploration of the threshold concept

Some encompassing terminology is required in order to accommodate different conceptual approaches in the three pillars of sustainability. So, this chapter provides a literature review exploring the threshold concept. In environmental research — especially in ecology — thresholds are often associated with limits which have certain system-inherent processes. In social and economic disciplines, if the notion of limit or critical limit is present, the concept of targets is often more appropriate which are linked to political objectives and social acceptability. The concept of threshold is accommodated within the general framework of limits and targets. What is important is the understanding developed here that almost any environmental, social or economic system has the potential to reach a point or an area that is unsustainable, or outside acceptable limits, relevant at a regional level.

Analysis of environmental policy measures aimed at reducing nitrogen leaching at the farm level

Environmental policy measures aimed at reducing nitrogen leaching from the root zone are analysed using farm-level models representing typical Danish crop farms and livestock holdings, the objective being to indicate the cost-effectiveness of the measures compared to a baseline scenario (1995). The cost-effectiveness of the measures is expressed as costs (i.e. changes in producers surplus) per kg reduction in N leaching, and the reductions in nitrogen leaching levels from the measures are compared with the official targets of 49% reductions. The modelled effects of levies are presented, and the results indicate that the imposition of levies on commercial nitrogen fertilizer will provide incentives for reduced fertilization and for substitution of commercial nitrogen fertilizer with livestock manure. Levies will also entail the risk of unintended and adverse effects, however, as crop selection can be influenced. These negative effects can be reduced by supplementing levies with a requirement to undersow catch crops in spring-sown cereals and legumes.