Berit Skirstad

Pain and Injury in Sport : Social and Ethical Analysis

Contributors Acknowledgements Introduction Section I Pain and Injury in Sports: Three Overviews 1 The Sociology of Pain and Injury in Sport: Main Perspectives and Problems Martin Roderick 2 Sport and the Psychology of Pain Kirsten Kaya Roessler 3 Three Approaches to the Study of Pain in Sport Sigmund Loland Section II Pain, Injury and Performance 4 The Place of Pain in Running John Bale 5 Pains and Strains on the Ice: Some thoughts on the Physical and Mental Struggles of Polar Adventurers Matti Goksoyr 6 Injured Female Athletes: Experiential Accounts from England and Canada Hannah Charlesworth and Kevin Young Section III The Deliberate Infliction of Pain and Injury 7 Sport and the Systematic Infliction of Pain: a Case Study of State Sponsored Mandatory Doping in East Germany Giselher Spitzer 8 Pain and Injury in Boxing: The Medical Profession Divided Ken Sheard 9 The Intentional Infliction of Pain in Sport: Ethical Perspectives Jim Parry Section IV The Management of Pain and Injury 10 Sports Medicine: A very Peculiar Practice? Doctors and Physiotherapists in Elite English Rugby Union Dominic Malcolm 11 Ethical Problems in the Medical Management of Sports Injuries: a Case Study of English Professional Football Ivan Waddington 12 The Ontology of Sports Injuries and Professional Medical Ethics Yotam Lurie 13 The Role of Injury in the Organization of Paralympic Sport P. David Howe Section V The Meaning of Pain and Injury 14 Suffering in and for Sport: Some Philosophical Remarks on a Painful Emotion Mike McNamee 15 Pain, Suffering and Paradox in Sport and Religion Jeffrey P. Fry

Between two volunteer cultures: social composition and motivation among volunteers at the 2010 test event for the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships.

This paper argues that a reflexive, late modern volunteer culture coexists with a collectivist, traditional one at major sporting events. Those who regularly volunteer at such events and are affiliated with organized sport tend to be older and male, and have higher incomes. Those who are volunteering for the first time and are unaffiliated with organized sport resemble reflexive volunteers to a greater extent: they tend to be younger and female, and their incomes are lower than those of regular sports volunteers. A factor analysis identified sports interest, social motives and qualification/work-related motives as three motivational dimensions for volunteering at sporting events. The first two intrinsic dimensions were more important to event regulars and those affiliated with organized sports. Building qualifications and work-related experience were more important motives for first-timers and unaffiliated volunteers, indicating that these volunteers view event volunteering as an appropriate way of investing in social and human capital. The data come from an Internet-based survey (n=800, response rate 77) conducted prior to the 2010 test event for the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships in Oslo, Norway.

Gender matters in sport event volunteering

The theoretical framework of Hustinx and Lammertyn on reflexive and traditional styles of volunteering is used to examine the differences between female and male volunteers at a sport event. Our study of the Nordic Skiing World Cup 2010 is an online-study involving pre- and post-event questionnaires. There were 659 respondents who answered both the questionnaires, a response rate of 63%. Our findings confirm the results from an earlier study by Downward Lumsdon, and Ralston (2005) that a major reason for women to volunteer is to improve their social capital and to become involved in useful networks. Motives were also examined in relation to membership of the sport club and/or history of previous volunteering. Men scored more highly on external and intrinsic motives. The data show that women to a lesser degree were members of a sport club and had less previous experience of volunteering at events than the men. The sport event seems to be a meeting place between traditional volunteers, dominated by males who are members of sport clubs with previous experience from other events, and the late modern volunteer culture which characterizes younger females.

Issues and Problems in the Organization of Children's Sport: A Case Study of Norway.

The focus of this article is on the organization of children’s sport in Norway. More specifically, the paper sets out to examine (i) the changing pattern of relationships, and in particular the changing balance of conflict and cooperation, between the several organizations with responsibility for children’s sport, and (ii) how sport for children is regulated in order to protect children against the dangers associated with competitive pressures, overspecialization and burnout. These questions are answered by tracing the key policy changes and initiatives in relation to children’s sport. With reference to the organization of children’s sport, the ideological struggles between schools and sport organizations over the nature and objectives of sport and physical activity are traced from the 1950s through to recent attempts to promote an Active Sports policy, which represent possible partnerships between several governmental ministries (culture, health and education), schools, and sport clubs. With reference to protecting children against competitive pressures and early overspecialization, the article traces the development from the first advisory guidelines for children’s sporting participation through to mandatory regulations and finally to the recognition of children’s rights in sport.

Gender relations in Scandinavian sport organizations – a comparison of the situation and the policies in Denmark, Norway and Sweden

This essay examines the under-representation of females on executive boards in sport in the Scandinavian countries at all levels except the sports club. Hitherto, there has been no comparative research at all in Scandinavia on this subject. The explanations of this under-representation are linked to individual actors as well as organization-centred perspectives. The similarities and differences in Denmark, Norway and Sweden are explained in the light of gender policy in society at large and within the respective sports organizations. This gives plausible explanations for why female Danish sports leaders are less concerned with equality questions than their male counterparts. This is different to the situation in Sweden and Norway where women are more concerned with equality questions than the men. Equal opportunity plans in Sweden and quota schemes in Norway seem to have had an influence on attitudes towards equal opportunities in sports organizations.

Theoretical Approaches to Change in Sports Organizations

Writing in the European Journal for Sport Management in 1998, Trevor Slack asked some searching questions about sport management as a discipline. In particular, Slack asked whether there is anything unique about sport management. He answered this question in the negative and went on to express his dissatisfaction with the direction in which sport management appeared to be moving. We are not concerned here with Slack’s more general critique of sport management, but rather with the fact that as part of his critique Slack referred, not once but several times, to what he saw as the relative weakness of the theoretical aspects of sport management. Slack argued that the bulk of work which had been conducted in sport management would fit best under the heading of organizational behaviour, but he noted that much of this work was ‘‘atheoretical and overly statistical in its analysis’’ (Slack, 1998, p. 23). He went on to point to what he called a theoretical ‘‘void’’ in sport management, and suggested: ‘‘Studies which employ the current theoretical approaches found in many of the subdisciplinary areas of mainstream management are noticeably absent from much of our work’’ (pp. 23 24). He returned again to the relative weakness of theoretical work in sport management towards the end of his paper:

Managing football organizations: a man’s world? Comparing women in decision-making positions in Germany and Norway and their international influence: a contextual approach

This research examines the representation of females in the executive committees of the national football associations of Germany and Norway and their international influence. Pettigrew’s contextual approach to change is used to identify the change process in governance, with a focus on pressures from outside and within sport in general and especially within football, the key actors, their values and legitimacy, and the structures and the strategies of the organizations. The analysis is based on secondary sources and interviews. The women’s football teams in these two countries have been relatively successful and while the national football associations may appear similar and also atypical of most countries; important differences between them are to be found in the speed of the changes associated with different cultures and the different ways in which the two football federations elect their executive boards. In Europe, the big clubs see the added value of having women’s teams.

Stakeholders, Challenges and Issues at a Co-Hosted Youth Olympic Event: Lessons Learned from the European Youth Olympic Festival in 2015

Abstract The 12th European Youth Olympic Festival (EYOF) was arranged in Austria and Liechtenstein in January 2015. By using a stakeholder framework, the study aims to: (a) identify and differentiate between primary and secondary stakeholders based on their level of influence in planning, implementation and impact of the event; and (b) analyze the challenges and issues caused by the co-hosting. Qualitative data stemming from interviews, observations and document analysis indicate that EYOF is a less formalized event with a scaled down budget. The local stakeholders turned out to have most to gain and were willing to pay for such an event. Therefore, the Organizing Committee involved local sponsors, companies and communities, who became core or primary stakeholders, whereas the usual IOC core stakeholders played a reduced role. Major challenges in co-hosting were the coordination and administration of a border, two currencies, transportation and accommodation. EYOF as an international event might not have international influence, but it may have a sustainable impact on the communities due to the co-host. This implies that co-hosting is a good model for future Olympic hosts if one wants to attract smaller countries, and have the benefits of cost-reduction, strengthening the community and cross-border relations.

Young people and sport: from participation to the Olympics – introduction to the special issue

Abstract The aim of this paper is to provide a context for the contributions which follow in this special issue. Attention is drawn to the range of possible motives for the increase in interest in youth sport evinced by a selection of major stakeholders including international sport federations, domestic federations and event organizers. The paper draws attention to the changing relationship between young people and sport where the former are seen increasingly as a resource to help meet the organizational objectives of the latter. The paper concludes with a summary of, and commentary on, the nine papers in the special issue.