Bernard J. Gallagher

The sociology of mental illness

I. MENTAL ILLNESS AND SOCIAL FORCES: AN OVERVIEW. 1. Mental Illness and Society. 2. Concepts, Definitions and Types of Mental Illness: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. 3. Environmental Theories of Mental Illness: The Influence of Social Stress. II. COMMON FORMS OF MENTAL ILLNESS: PREVALENCE, SYMPTOMS, AND CAUSES. 4. Schizophrenic and Mood Disorders. 5. Anxiety Disorders. 6. Personality Disorders. III. THE SOCIAL EPIDEMIOLOGY OF MENTAL ILLNESS. 7. Epidemiology: An Overview of Patterns of Mental Illness. 8. Social Class and Social Mobility. 9. Gender, Marital Status, and Family Relationships. 10. Religion, Ethnicity and Race. 11. Migration, Place of Residence and Age. IV. THE PSYCHOSOCIAL EXPERIENCES OF MENTAL PATIENTS. 12. Becoming a Mental Patient: The Prepatient Process. 13. Treatment: The Inpatient Experience. 14. After the Mental Hospital: The Social Role of the Ex-Mental Patient.

Gestational and neonatal factors in the etiology of schizophrenia

This study evaluates research on gestational and neonatal factors implicated as causes of schizophrenia. These include obstetrical complications (particularly gestational hypoxia), viral infections, autoimmune agents, developmental deficits, and maternal stress. Evidence strongly suggests that these factors are importantly connected to the onset of adult schizophrenia.

The Attitudes of Members of the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers towards Treatment, Release, and Recidivism of Violent Sex Offenders: An Exploratory Study.

Abstract Attitudes of members of the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers (ATSA) towards treatment, release, and recidivism of sexual predators are assessed through an anonymous questionnaire. Fifty-two percent (540 members) responded. A large majority report little hope for cure (63%) and fear of recidivism after treatment (88%). No differences in opinion are found between respondents when grouped by age, gender, political orientation, occupational title, or years in occupation.

An Empirical Analysis of Attitude Differences Between Three Kin-Related Generations.

Probably no issue of today’s world is more widely discussed than the changing character of the younger generation. Those whose adolescence encompassed the years prior to the end of World War II are at least surprised to see the frank, uninhibited, and self-directing attitude of youth. Many of these people feel that the attitudes of young people also describe a character that does not wish to be bound by rules

Social class, family history and type of schizophrenia

To date, there are numerous studies supporting a genetic model of schizophrenia. There is a paucity of studies, however, screening for a connection between family history of serious mental illness and deficit vs. nondeficit schizophrenia. The aim of the present study was to explore the association between family history, deficit vs. nondeficit schizophrenia and socioeconomic status (SES) of family of origin. Patients (N=437) from a United States psychiatric hospital were separated into deficit vs. nondeficit presentation and bifurcated into poor vs. nonpoor SES. Family history data were utilized to classify patients into subgroups characterized by serious mental illness within immediate family, within extended family, or no evidence of mental illness. Statistical testing was conducted using logistic regression analysis. SES of family of origin was significantly associated with schizophrenic subtype independently of family history, sex and race; specifically, poverty raised the risk of deficit schizophrenia. Family history of mental illness showed no net association, and no statistical interaction with poverty, in predicting risk of deficit schizophrenia.

The “winter born phenomenon” among schizophrenics: Differences between blacks and whites†

Reviewed the literature on birth seasonality among schizophrenics and reported data on highly significant differences between the quarterly birth patterns of black and white schizophrenics (N = 724). The findings strongly indicate that specific subgroups of schizophrenics are especially likely to be winter-borns. Log-linear analyses uncovered a highly significant difference between the birth seasons of black and white patients. Black schizophrenics are especially likely to be winter-borns, while white schizophrenics had a birth peak in the fall. We speculate about the causes of this race-specific finding from a perspective that is sociological and neurophysiological.

Prenatal illness and subtypes of schizophrenia: the winter pregnancy phenomenon.

Seasonality of birth patterns is examined among a sample of 801 patients with schizophrenia separated into Type I and Type II schizophrenia. Findings indicate that both groups of patients were in utero during the winter but during different trimesters. Patients with Type I schizophrenia were more likely to be in utero during the third trimester. Patients with Type II schizophrenia were more likely to have been in the womb during the first trimester. Implications for fetal brain development are discussed.

Stressful life events, social class and symptoms of schizophrenia

We test to see if severe stressful life events precede onset of specific symptoms of schizophrenia. Our analyses extend to possible variations in the effect by socioeconomic status (SES) of origin. The medical records of 431 schizophrenic patients were categorized into negative and positive subtypes by application of SANS, SAPS and PANS scales. SES was bifurcated into low SES and high SES groups. Stressful life events were classified into four domains. The study variables were tested by the use of chi-square analysis. Our results show that there is an elevated rate of positive symptoms among low SES patients who underwent a stressful life event before symptom onset. Significance is confirmed with a X2 value of 5.418, p=.020. The finding does not hold true for high SES patients and is not related to type of stressful life event. Thus, we conclude that environmental stressors frequently precede onset of positive symptoms of schizophrenia. This is only true for patients of low SES of origin. We hypothesize that low SES patients have a heightened reactivity to stressors, a reactivity that is incubated by the human toll of impoverishment.

Patterns of Authoritarianism Between Generations

Summary Family units, consisting of one young adult offspring of either sex and both parents, were given two measures of authoritarianism: The California F Scale and the Traditional Family Ideology (TFI) Scale developed by Levinson and Huffman. The final sample of those families completing all scales consisted of 43 families of female young adults and 25 families of male young adults. As expected, the young adults were significantly less authoritarian than their parents on both measures. Previous research had reported mixed results on sex differences in authoritarianism, some reporting males more authoritarian, others females more authoritarian, and still others no difference. The present study found no sex differences. Mixed results have also been reported in parent-child similarities, with some studies finding cross-sex similarities and others reporting same-sex similarities. The present research supported neither pattern, since none of the parent-offspring correlations was significant for either sex. T...

Neglect and hereditary risk: Their relative contribution to schizophrenia with negative symptomatology

Background: There is evidence that genetic and environmental stressors contribute to the genesis of schizophrenia. However, the relevant impact of each factor remains unclear. We tested for an interactive effect between childhood neglect and family history of serious mental illness. Data were further analyzed for a possible connection to type of schizophrenic symptoms. Sampling/Methods: Data for the study are taken from the medical records of 641 patients with schizophrenia from a large state hospital in the northeastern United States. Clinical assessments were divided into positive and negative symptomatology through application of the Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS), the Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS) and the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). Detailed information about childhood neglect and family history of serious mental illness was obtained through Social Service Assessment interviews at intake and during hospital stay. Results: Among clients with no family history of mental illness, childhood neglect does not meaningfully affect the risk of negative versus positive schizophrenia. For clients with such history, on the other hand, neglect significantly raises the risk of schizophrenia with negative symptomatology. Conclusion: Our central finding is that risk for negative symptoms of schizophrenia are elevated by childhood neglect combined with a history of serious mental illness within the family. This is the only report to combine schizophrenic symptoms, familial risk and childhood neglect to date. Implications for primary prevention and treatment are discussed.