Bernhard Payer

Blimp1 is a critical determinant of the germ cell lineage in mice

Germ cell fate in mice is induced in pluripotent epiblast cells in response to signals from extraembryonic tissues. The specification of approximately 40 founder primordial germ cells and their segregation from somatic neighbours are important events in early development. We have proposed that a critical event during this specification includes repression of a somatic programme that is adopted by neighbouring cells. Here we show that Blimp1 (also known as Prdm1), a known transcriptional repressor, has a critical role in the foundation of the mouse germ cell lineage, as its disruption causes a block early in the process of primordial germ cell formation. Blimp1-deficient mutant embryos form a tight cluster of about 20 primordial germ cell-like cells, which fail to show the characteristic migration, proliferation and consistent repression of homeobox genes that normally accompany specification of primordial germ cells. Furthermore, our genetic lineage-tracing experiments indicate that the Blimp1-positive cells originating from the proximal posterior epiblast cells are indeed the lineage-restricted primordial germ cell precursors.

Mst1 and Mst2 Maintain Hepatocyte Quiescence and Suppress Hepatocellular Carcinoma Development through Inactivation of the Yap1 Oncogene

Hippo-Lats-Yorkie signaling regulates tissue overgrowth and tumorigenesis in Drosophila. We show that the Mst1 and Mst2 protein kinases, the mammalian Hippo orthologs, are cleaved and constitutively activated in the mouse liver. Combined Mst1/2 deficiency in the liver results in loss of inhibitory Ser127 phosphorylation of the Yorkie ortholog, Yap1, massive overgrowth, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Reexpression of Mst1 in HCC-derived cell lines promotes Yap1 Ser127 phosphorylation and inactivation and abrogates their tumorigenicity. Notably, Mst1/2 inactivates Yap1 in liver through an intermediary kinase distinct from Lats1/2. Approximately 30% of human HCCs show low Yap1(Ser127) phosphorylation and a majority exhibit loss of cleaved, activated Mst1. Mst1/2 inhibition of Yap1 is an important pathway for tumor suppression in liver relevant to human HCC.

X Chromosome Dosage Compensation: How Mammals Keep the Balance

The development of genetic sex determination and cytologically distinct sex chromosomes leads to the potential problem of gene dosage imbalances between autosomes and sex chromosomes and also between males and females. To circumvent these imbalances, mammals have developed an elaborate system of dosage compensation that includes both upregulation and repression of the X chromosome. Recent advances have provided insights into the evolutionary history of how both the imprinted and random forms of X chromosome inactivation have come about. Furthermore, our understanding of the epigenetic switch at the X-inactivation center and the molecular aspects of chromosome-wide silencing has greatly improved recently. Here, we review various facets of the ever-expanding field of mammalian dosage compensation and discuss its evolutionary, developmental, and mechanistic components.

In Vivo Time-Lapse Imaging of Cell Divisions during Neurogenesis in the Developing Zebrafish Retina

Two-photon excitation microscopy was used to reconstruct cell divisions in living zebrafish embryonic retinas. Contrary to proposed models for vertebrate asymmetric divisions, no apico-basal cell divisions take place in the zebrafish retina during the generation of postmitotic neurons. However, a surprising shift in the orientation of cell division from central-peripheral to circumferential occurs within the plane of the ventricular surface. In the sonic you (syu) and lakritz (lak) mutants, the shift from central-peripheral to circumferential divisions is absent or delayed, correlating with the delay in neuronal differentiation and neurogenesis in these mutants. The reconstructions here show that mitotic cells always remain in contact with the opposite basal surface by means of a thin basal process that can be inherited asymmetrically.

A comprehensive Xist interactome reveals cohesin repulsion and an RNA-directed chromosome conformation

Protein partners for chromosome silencing Female mammals have two X chromosomes, one of which is almost completely shut down during development. The long noncoding Xist RNA plays a role in this process. To understand how a whole chromosome can be stably inactivated, Minajigi et al. identified many of the proteins that bind to the Xist RNA, which include cohesins. Paradoxically, the interaction between Xist and cohesin subunits resulted in repulsion of cohesin complexes from the inactive X chromosome, changing the three-dimensional shape of the whole chromosome. Science, this issue 10.1126/science.aab2276 A screen for factors that bind directly to RNA reveals the proteins that interact with the long noncoding RNA Xist. INTRODUCTION The mammal has evolved an epigenetic mechanism to silence one of two X chromosomes in the XX female to equalize gene dosages with the XY male. Once established, the inactivated X chromosome (Xi) is extremely stable and is maintained through the lifetime of the female mammal. The principal regulator, Xist, is a long noncoding RNA that orchestrates the silencing process along the Xi. Xist is believed to operate as a scaffold to recruit and spread repressive complexes, such as Polycomb Repressive Complex 2, along the X chromosome. The identities of crucial interacting factors, however, have remained largely unknown. RATIONALE Although the Xi’s epigenetic stability is a necessary homeostatic property, an ability to unlock this epigenetic state is of great current interest. The X chromosome is home to nearly 1000 genes, at least 50 of which have been implicated in X-linked diseases, such as Rett syndrome and fragile X syndrome. The Xi is therefore a reservoir of functional genes that could be tapped to replace expression of a disease allele on the active X (Xa). A major gap in current understanding is the lack of a comprehensive Xist interactome. Progress toward a full interactome would advance knowledge of epigenetic regulation by long noncoding RNA and potentially inform treatment of X-linked diseases. RESULTS We have developed an RNA-centric proteomic method called iDRiP (identification of direct RNA-interacting proteins). Using iDRiP, we identified 80 to 200 proteins in the Xist interactome. The interactors fall into several functional categories, including cohesins, condensins, topoisomerases, RNA helicases, chromatin remodelers, histone modifiers, DNA methyltransferases, nucleoskeletal factors, and nuclear matrix proteins. Targeted inhibition demonstrates that Xi silencing can be destabilized by disrupting multiple components of the interactome, consistent with the idea that these factors synergistically repress Xi transcription. Triple-drug treatments lead to a net increase of Xi expression and up-regulation of ~100 to 200 Xi genes. We then carry out a focused study of X-linked cohesin sites. Chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing analysis demonstrates three types of cohesin sites on the X chromosome: Xi-specific sites, Xa-specific sites, and biallelic sites. We find that the Xa-specific binding sites represent a default state. Ablating Xist results in restoration of Xa-specific sites on the Xi. These findings demonstrate that, while Xist attracts repressive complexes to the Xi, it actively repels chromosomal architectural factors such as the cohesins from the Xi. Finally, we examine how Xist and the repulsion of cohesins affect Xi chromosome structure. In wild-type cells, the Xa is characterized by ~112 topologically associated domains (TADs) and the Xi by two megadomains. Intriguingly, loss of Xist and restoration of cohesin binding result in a reversion of the Xi to an Xa-like chromosome conformation. Hi-C analysis shows that TADs return to the Xi in a manner correlated with the reappearance of cohesins and with a transcriptionally permissive state. CONCLUSION Our study unveils many layers of Xi repression and demonstrates a central role for RNA in the topological organization of mammalian chromosomes. Our study also supports a model in which Xist RNA simultaneously acts as (i) a scaffold for the recruitment of repressive complexes to establish and maintain the inactive state and (ii) a repulsion mechanism to extrude architectural factors such as cohesins to avoid acquisition of a transcription-favorable chromatin conformation. Finally, our findings indicate that the stability of the Xi can be perturbed by targeted inhibition of multiple components of the Xist interactome. An operational model for how Xist RNA orchestrates the Xi state. Xist is a multitasking RNA that brings many layers of repression to the Xi. Although Xist RNA recruits repressive complexes (such as PRC1, PRC2, DNMT1, macroH2A, and SmcHD1) to establish and maintain the inactive state, it also actively repels activating factors and architectural proteins (such as the cohesins and CTCF) to avoid acquisition of a transcription-favorable chromatin conformation. The inactive X chromosome (Xi) serves as a model to understand gene silencing on a global scale. Here, we perform “identification of direct RNA interacting proteins” (iDRiP) to isolate a comprehensive protein interactome for Xist, an RNA required for Xi silencing. We discover multiple classes of interactors—including cohesins, condensins, topoisomerases, RNA helicases, chromatin remodelers, and modifiers—that synergistically repress Xi transcription. Inhibiting two or three interactors destabilizes silencing. Although Xist attracts some interactors, it repels architectural factors. Xist evicts cohesins from the Xi and directs an Xi-specific chromosome conformation. Upon deleting Xist, the Xi acquires the cohesin-binding and chromosomal architecture of the active X. Our study unveils many layers of Xi repression and demonstrates a central role for RNA in the topological organization of mammalian chromosomes.

Two-Step Imprinted X Inactivation: Repeat versus Genic Silencing in the Mouse

ABSTRACT Mammals compensate for unequal X-linked gene dosages between the sexes by inactivating one X chromosome in the female. In marsupials and in the early mouse embryo, X chromosome inactivation (XCI) is imprinted to occur selectively on the paternal X chromosome (XP). The mechanisms and events underlying XP imprinting remain unclear. Here, we find that the imprinted XP can be functionally divided into two domains, one comprising traditional coding genes (genic) and the other comprising intergenic repetitive elements. XP repetitive element silencing occurs by the two-cell stage, does not require Xist, and occurs several divisions prior to genic silencing. In contrast, genic silencing initiates at the morula-to-blastocyst stage and absolutely requires Xist. Genes translocate into the presilenced repeat region as they are inactivated, whereas active genes remain outside. Thus, during the gamete-embryo transition, imprinted XCI occurs in two steps, with repeat silencing preceding genic inactivation. Nucleolar association may underlie the epigenetic asymmetry of XP and XM. We hypothesize that transgenerational information (the imprint) is carried by repeats from the paternal germ line or that, alternatively, repetitive elements are silenced at the two-cell stage in a parent-of-origin-specific manner. Our model incorporates aspects of the so-called classical, de novo, and preinactivation hypotheses and suggests that Xist RNA functions relatively late during preimplantation mouse development.

Blimp1 and the Emergence of the Germ Line during Development in the Mouse

To elucidate the mechanism for the specification of primordial germ cells (PGCs) in mice, we have developed and exploited the methods of single cell analysis. Based on these studies, we proposed a molecular programme associated with this process, a key event of which is the repression of homeobox genes that are, without exception, up regulated in somatic neighbors. We have now identified Blimp1, a potent transcriptional repressor of a histone methyltransferase subfamily, as a key regulator of PGC specification. Indeed, the unexpected early onset of Blimp1 expression in a few cells at the most proximal-posterior epiblast cells marks the origin of the germ cell lineage. Disruption of Blimp1 function resulted in aberrant PGC-like cells with a deregulated intrinsic gene expression programme at a very early stage, which demonstrates that Blimp1 is a critical determinant of the germ line in mice.

Tsix RNA and the germline factor, PRDM14, link X-reactivation and stem cell reprogramming

Transitions between pluripotent and differentiated states are marked by dramatic epigenetic changes. Cellular differentiation is tightly linked to X chromosome inactivation (XCI), whereas reprogramming to induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) is associated with X chromosome reactivation (XCR). XCR reverses the silent state of the inactive X, occurring in mouse blastocysts and germ cells. In spite of its importance, little is known about underlying mechanisms. Here, we examine the role of the long noncoding Tsix RNA and the germline factor, PRDM14. In blastocysts, XCR is perturbed by mutation of either Tsix or Prdm14. In iPSCs, XCR is disrupted only by PRDM14 deficiency, which also affects iPSC derivation and maintenance. We show that Tsix and PRDM14 directly link XCR to pluripotency: first, PRDM14 represses Rnf12 by recruiting polycomb repressive complex 2; second, Tsix enables PRDM14 to bind Xist. Thus, our study provides functional and mechanistic links between cellular and X chromosome reprogramming.

X-inactivation and X-reactivation: epigenetic hallmarks of mammalian reproduction and pluripotent stem cells

X-chromosome inactivation is an epigenetic hallmark of mammalian development. Chromosome-wide regulation of the X-chromosome is essential in embryonic and germ cell development. In the male germline, the X-chromosome goes through meiotic sex chromosome inactivation, and the chromosome-wide silencing is maintained from meiosis into spermatids before the transmission to female embryos. In early female mouse embryos, X-inactivation is imprinted to occur on the paternal X-chromosome, representing the epigenetic programs acquired in both parental germlines. Recent advances revealed that the inactive X-chromosome in both females and males can be dissected into two elements: repeat elements versus unique coding genes. The inactive paternal X in female preimplantation embryos is reactivated in the inner cell mass of blastocysts in order to subsequently allow the random form of X-inactivation in the female embryo, by which both Xs have an equal chance of being inactivated. X-chromosome reactivation is regulated by pluripotency factors and also occurs in early female germ cells and in pluripotent stem cells, where X-reactivation is a stringent marker of naive ground state pluripotency. Here we summarize recent progress in the study of X-inactivation and X-reactivation during mammalian reproduction and development as well as in pluripotent stem cells.

Xist imprinting is promoted by the hemizygous (unpaired) state in the male germ line.

Significance Mammals with imprinted X inactivation demonstrate exclusive silencing of the paternal X chromosome. X-inactivation–specific transcript (Xist) RNA directs this silencing and is imprinted to be expressed only from the father’s X chromosome. Here we investigate how Xist is imprinted. Using a transgenesis system, we find that Xist imprinting depends on its unpaired state in the father’s germ line. When Xist is present in two copies (one each on homologous chromosomes) and therefore is paired during meiosis, the gene does not demonstrate paternal-specific expression in the female embryo. However, when Xist is present in only one copy and therefore lacks a pairing partner during meiosis, the gene shows strong imprinted expression. Thus, the unpaired state plays a critical role in epigenetic transmission between generations. The long noncoding X-inactivation–specific transcript (Xist gene) is responsible for mammalian X-chromosome dosage compensation between the sexes, the process by which one of the two X chromosomes is inactivated in the female soma. Xist is essential for both the random and imprinted forms of X-chromosome inactivation. In the imprinted form, Xist is paternally marked to be expressed in female embryos. To investigate the mechanism of Xist imprinting, we introduce Xist transgenes (Tg) into the male germ line. Although ectopic high-level Xist expression on autosomes can be compatible with viability, transgenic animals demonstrate reduced fitness, subfertility, defective meiotic pairing, and other germ-cell abnormalities. In the progeny, paternal-specific expression is recapitulated by the 200-kb Xist Tg. However, Xist imprinting occurs efficiently only when it is in an unpaired or unpartnered state during male meiosis. When transmitted from a hemizygous father (+/Tg), the Xist Tg demonstrates paternal-specific expression in the early embryo. When transmitted by a homozygous father (Tg/Tg), the Tg fails to show imprinted expression. Thus, Xist imprinting is directed by sequences within a 200-kb X-linked region, and the hemizygous (unpaired) state of the Xist region promotes its imprinting in the male germ line.