Blema S. Steinberg

A framework for research on foreign policy behavior

The study of foreign policy is underdeveloped ; its theoretical content is inadequate ; and analysis for the most part lacks rigor. Some preparatory work has been done. State behavior is no longer seen exclusively as a reaction to external stimuli; internal pressures, too, are now widely recognized as affecting foreign policy decisions. Yet, as James Rosenau has cogently observed, &dquo;to identify factors is not to trace their influence. To uncover processes that affect external behavior is not to explain how and why they are operative under certain circumstances and not under others. To recognize that foreign policy is shaped by internal as well as external factors is not

The Making of Female Presidents and Prime Ministers: The Impact of Birth Order, Sex, of Siblings, and Father‐Daughter Dynamics

Although research into the factors that may affect male achievement of political leadership is relatively robust, very few studies on the making of female presidents and prime ministers exist. This paper examines the literature on birth order, sex of siblings, and parent-daughter dynamics to see whether the findings for male political leaders—that first-born individuals will be overrepresented as compared with later-born siblings—also hold for female ones. Two other hypotheses were tested concerning differences in birth order and sex of siblings between female political leaders and a larger sample of women. A review of the literature on parent-daughter dynamics suggests that this may be another important variable for future research into explanations for the success of women who achieve senior-level positions of power. The findings suggest that first-born women, like first-born men, are overrepresented among political leaders; that first-born women are overrepresented among female political leaders as compared with their numbers in a larger sample population; and that fewer female political leaders have an older brother than would be expected to occur in a larger sample population. The last finding applies only for women who come to power in the period 1960–1989, not those who gained office more recently.

Shame and humiliation in the cuban missile crisis : a psychoanalytic perspective

This paper examines the major explanations for deterrence failure and proposes an additional explanatory variable drawn from psychoanalytic theory-the expe- rience of shame and humiliation by foreign policy leaders. Decision-makers who have undergone such experiences may be inclined to challenge the status quo, in order to restore their sense of self-esteem, even when such behavior violates the precepts of rational deterrence theory. The foreign policy behavior of Nikita Khruschev and John F. Kennedy, during the Cuban missile crisis, is examined in detail to demonstrate the way in which feelings of shame and humiliation are frequently followed by narcissistic rage that expresses itself in acts of aggression in an attempt to alleviate those painful affects and increase feelings of self-worth. The evidence suggests that placingforeign policy leaders in positions of humilia- tion may stimulate their desire for revenge, invite retaliatory behavior, and, particularly in times of crisis, run the risk of all-out war.