Bonnie A. Lyon

The effect of inorganic precursors on disinfection byproduct formation during UV-chlorine/chloramine drinking water treatment

Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection is being increasingly used in drinking water treatment. It is important to understand how its application to different types of water may influence finished water quality, particularly as anthropogenic activity continues to impact the quality of source waters. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of inorganic precursors on the formation of regulated and unregulated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) during UV irradiation of surface waters when combined with chlorination or chloramination. Samples were collected from three drinking water utilities supplied by source waters with varying organic and inorganic precursor content. The filtered samples were treated in the laboratory with a range of UV doses delivered from low pressure (LP, UV output at 253.7 nm) and medium pressure (MP, polychromatic UV output 200-400 nm) mercury lamps followed by chlorination or chloramination, in the presence and absence of additional bromide and nitrate. The regulated trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids were not affected by UV pretreatment at disinfection doses (40-186 mJ/cm²). With higher doses (1000 mJ/cm²), trihalomethane formation was increased 30-40%. While most effects on DBPs were only observed with doses much higher than typically used for UV disinfection, there were some effects on unregulated DBPs at lower doses. In nitrate-spiked samples (1-10 mg N/L), chloropicrin formation doubled and increased three- to six-fold with 40 mJ/cm² MP UV followed by chloramination and chlorination, respectively. Bromopicrin formation was increased in samples containing bromide (0.5-1 mg/L) and nitrate (1-10 mg N/L) when pretreated with LP or MP UV (30-60% with 40 mJ/cm² LP UV and four- to ten-fold increase with 40 mJ/cm² MP UV, after subsequent chlorination). The formation of cyanogen chloride doubled and increased three-fold with MP UV doses of 186 and 1000 mJ/cm², respectively, when followed by chloramination in nitrate-spiked samples but remained below the World Health Organization guideline value of 70 μg/L in all cases. MP UV and high LP UV doses (1000 mJ/cm²) increased chloral hydrate formation after subsequent chlorination (20-40% increase for 40 mJ/cm² MP UV). These results indicate the importance of bench-testing DBP implications of UV applications in combination with post-disinfectants as part of the engineering assessment of a UV-chlorine/chloramine multi-barrier disinfection design for drinking water treatment.

Changes in dissolved organic matter fluorescence and disinfection byproduct formation from UV and subsequent chlorination/chloramination.

Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is being increasingly used to help drinking water utilities meet finished water quality regulations, but its influence on disinfection byproduct (DBP) precursors and DBP formation is not completely understood. This study investigated the effect of medium pressure (MP) UV combined with chlorination/chloramination on the fluorescent fraction of dissolved organic matter (DOM) isolated from a United States surface water with median total organic carbon content. Parallel factor analysis was used to understand how UV may alter the capacity of DOM to form DBPs of potential human health concern. The production of chloral hydrate and cyanogen chloride from MP UV followed by chlorine or chloramine, respectively, correlated with a decrease in fluorescence intensity of a protein/tryptophan-like component (R(2)=0.79-0.99) and a humic-like component (R(2)=0.91-1.00). This suggests that the UV-induced precursors to these compounds originated from DOM with similar characteristics to these components. The fluorescent DOM components identified in this study are similar to reoccurring components that have been previously identified in a range of raw and treated waters, and this work demonstrates the value of using fluorescence analysis of DOM to understand the relationships between DOM source and DBP formation under a range of treatment conditions.

Integrated Chemical and Toxicological Investigation of UV-Chlorine/Chloramine Drinking Water Treatment

As the use of alternative drinking water treatment increases, it is important to understand potential public health implications associated with these processes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and cytotoxicity of natural organic matter (NOM) concentrates treated with chlorine, chloramine, and medium pressure ultraviolet (UV) irradiation followed by chlorine or chloramine, with and without nitrate or iodide spiking. The use of concentrated NOM conserved volatile DBPs and allowed for direct analysis of the treated water. Treatment with UV prior to chlorine in ambient (unspiked) samples did not affect cytotoxicity as measured using an in vitro normal human colon cell (NCM460) assay, compared to chlorination alone when toxicity is expressed on the basis of dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Nitrate-spiked UV+chlorine treatment produced greater cytotoxicity than nitrate-spiked chlorine alone or ambient UV+chlorine samples, on both a DOC and total organic halogen basis. Samples treated with UV+chloramine were more cytotoxic than those treated with only chloramine using either dose metric. This study demonstrated the combination of cytotoxicity and DBP measurements for process evaluation in drinking water treatment. The results highlight the importance of dose metric when considering the relative toxicity of complex DBP mixtures formed under different disinfection scenarios.

Influence of a polymer sunscreen additive on the transport and retention of titanium dioxide nanoparticles in water-saturated porous media

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nTiO2) are utilized in an array of consumer products including paints, sunscreens, cosmetics, and food. These products typically contain stabilizing agents that may alter nTiO2 fate when released into the environment. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of TEGO carbomer, a polymeric stabilizing agent used in sunscreen, on the transport and deposition behavior of nTiO2 in porous media. Aqueous nTiO2 suspensions at pH 5.0 or 7.5 ± 0.2 were introduced into water-saturated columns packed with Federal Fine Ottawa sand. In the absence of carbomer, nTiO2 was not detected in effluent samples at pH 5, which was below the estimated point of zero charge (PZC) of nTiO2 (pH 6.3), while greater than 80% elution of nTiO2 was observed at pH 7.5. The addition of 3 mg L−1 carbomer decreased the PZC from 6.3 to less than 5, and resulted in greater than 94% elution of nTiO2 at pH 5 and 7.5. A nanoparticle transport model that incorporates a first-order, maximum retention capacity term was able to capture column breakthrough and retention data. Model results indicate that the presence of carbomer reduced the average retention capacity of the solid phase from 3.40 to 1.10 μg TiO2 g−1 sand, irrespective of solution chemistry changes. These findings demonstrate the substantial impact that polymeric stabilizing agents can have on the fate of nTiO2 in porous media, potentially enhancing nTiO2 mobility in the environment and reducing the efficiency of filtration systems for nTiO2.