Bradley C. Bennett

Introduced plants in the indigenous Pharmacopoeia of Northern South America

The intellectual property rights debate focuses on the flow of germplasm from developing tropical countries to developed temperate nations. Few investigators have addressed the converse. We discuss the abundance and importance of introduced plants in pharmacopoeias of northern South America. Introduced species commonly are employed as medicines throughout the region and include at least 216 Eurasian, North American, African, and Pacific species. Among the Shuar of lowland Ecuador, four introduced plants (Citrus aurantium, Cymbopogon citratus, Saccharum officinarum, and Zingiber officinale) are included in their most commonly prescribed remedies. The widespread use of introduced plants is due, in part, to the medicinal value of plants whose primary use is for food (e.g., Musa X paradisiacal Similarly, many introduced ornamentals also have therapeutic value (e.g., Hedychium coronarium). Other species have been introduced specifically as medicines (e.g., Aloe vera). Restrictions on the flow of germplasm and plant knowledge may protect the economic interests of governments and national industry. If applied bilaterally, however, constraints on the movement of plants will limit the continued evolution of traditional medicinal systems in areas where they are most needed.ResumenEl debate sobre los derechos de propiedad intelectual se enfoca principalmente en el movimiento de germoplasma desde los paises en vias de desarrollado de las regíones tropicales hacia los paises desarrollados de la zona templada. Pocos investigadores han examinado lo contrario. Discutimos la abundancia y la importancia de plantas introducidas en las farmacopeas del norte de América del Sur. El uso medicinal de plantas introducidas es mu común y incluye por lo menos 216 especies de Europa, Asia, América del Norte, Africa, y la regián Pacífica. Entre las Shuaras de las tierras bajas de Ecuador, cuatro plantas introducidas (Citrus aurantium, Cymbopogon citratus, Saccharum officinarum, and Zingiber officinale) estan incluidas en sus remedios más comunes. El extenso uso de plantas introducidas, es en gran parie, debido al valor medicinal de plantas que tienen su uso primario como alimento (e.g., Musa X paradisiaca). Muchas plantas ornamentales también tienen valor terapéutico (e.g., Hedychium coronarium). Otras especies han sido introducidas específicamente como medicinas (por ejemplo, Aloe vera). Restricciones en el movimiento de germoplasma y conocimiento respecto a plantas quizás protejan el interés económico de gobiernos y industrias nationales. Sin embargo, si se aplica en una manera bilateral, restriciones en el movimiento de plantas limitará la evolutión continuada de sistemas tradiconales de medicina en los regiones en donde son más necesarias.

Effects of extracts from Italian medicinal plants on planktonic growth, biofilm formation and adherence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

AIM OF STUDY One-third of botanical remedies from southern Italy are used to treat skin and soft tissue infection (SSTI). Staphylococcus aureus, a common cause of SSTI, has generated increasing concern due to drug resistance. Many plants possess antimicrobial agents and provide effective remedies for SSTI. Our aim was to investigate plants from different ethnobotanical usage groups for inhibition of growth and biofilms in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). MATERIALS AND METHODS Three groups were assessed: plant remedies for SSTI, plant remedies not involving the skin, and plants with no ethnomedical application. We screened 168 extracts, representing 104 botanical species, for activity against MRSA (ATCC 33593). We employed broth dilution methods to determine the MIC after 18 h growth using an optical density (OD 600 nm) reading. Anti-biofilm effects were assessed by growing biofilms for 40 h, then fixing and staining with crystal violet. After washing, 10% Tween 80 was added and OD 570 nm readings were taken. RESULTS Extracts from 10 plants exhibited an IC50<or=32 microg/ml for biofilm inhibition: Lonicera alpigena, Castanea sativa, Juglans regia, Ballota nigra, Rosmarinus officinalis, Leopoldia comosa, Malva sylvestris, Cyclamen hederifolium, Rosa canina, and Rubus ulmifolius. Limited bacteriostatic activity was evident. CONCLUSION This study has demonstrated that the anti-biofilm activity of medicinal plants used for SSTI is significantly greater than plants without any ethnomedical applications.

Plants and People of the Amazonian Rainforests The role of ethnobotany in sustainable development

South Americas Amazon Basin contains the worlds largest expanse of tropical rainforest. Its diversity is renowned. On a single Peruvian tree, Wilson (1988) found 43 species of ants, comparable to the entire ant fauna of the British Isles. The Amazon River system supports an estimated 2500-3000 fish species (Goulding 1980), or ten times the number found in the Mississippi. Twenty percent of the worlds 50,000 vascular plant species occur in the Amazon Basin (Carneiro 1988). Neill and Palacios1 found 245 tree species in a one-hectare Ecuadorian plot. Gentry (1988) found 283 species in a one-hectare Peruvian plot. Amazonias ethnic diversity rivals its biological diversity. Extinction threatens both. When discovered by Europeans in the late fifteenth century, the Amazon had an indigenous population estimated at 6 million or more (Bunker 1985, Carneiro 1988, Denevan 1976, Hecht and Cockburn 1989). Approximately 250,000 remain today (Carneiro 1988), distributed among

Invasion History of Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S.T. Blake in Florida

Abstract The Australian punk tree Melaleuca quinquenervia is a notorious invasive weed that threatens the biological integrity of Floridas Everglades ecosystems. A comprehensive plan initiated to manage M. quinquenervia includes an ambitious biological control program, and as part of this program we investigated the origins and invasion history of M. quinquenervia in Florida. Scrutiny of public and private records showed that extant populations derive from more than a dozen introductions, with the earliest occurring during 1886 in Sarasota County. Six sources, some Australian and some extra-Australian, have contributed to Floridas populations. The tree became naturalized in southern Florida during the 1920s, but a paucity of records makes it difficult to determine when naturalized populations began to proliferate via an exponential growth phase. Human distribution of seeds and seedlings is a confounding factor in attempting to decipher rates of M. quinquenervia invasion.

Dermatological remedies in the traditional pharmacopoeia of Vulture-Alto Bradano, inland southern Italy

BackgroundDermatological remedies make up at least one-third of the traditional pharmacopoeia in southern Italy. The identification of folk remedies for the skin is important both for the preservation of traditional medical knowledge and in the search for novel antimicrobial agents in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infection (SSTI). Our goal is to document traditional remedies from botanical, animal, mineral and industrial sources for the topical treatment of skin ailments. In addition to SSTI remedies for humans, we also discuss certain ethnoveterinary applications.MethodsField research was conducted in ten communities in the Vulture-Alto Bradano area of the Basilicata province, southern Italy. We randomly sampled 112 interviewees, stratified by age and gender. After obtaining prior informed consent, we collected data through semi-structured interviews, participant-observation, and small focus groups techniques. Voucher specimens of all cited botanic species were deposited at FTG and HLUC herbaria located in the US and Italy.ResultsWe report the preparation and topical application of 116 remedies derived from 38 plant species. Remedies are used to treat laceration, burn wound, wart, inflammation, rash, dental abscess, furuncle, dermatitis, and other conditions. The pharmacopoeia also includes 49 animal remedies derived from sources such as pigs, slugs, and humans. Ethnoveterinary medicine, which incorporates both animal and plant derived remedies, is addressed. We also examine the recent decline in knowledge regarding the dermatological pharmacopoeia.ConclusionThe traditional dermatological pharmacopoeia of Vulture-Alto Bradano is based on a dynamic folk medical construct of natural and spiritual illness and healing. Remedies are used to treat more than 45 skin and soft tissue conditions of both humans and animals. Of the total 165 remedies reported, 110 have never before been published in the mainland southern Italian ethnomedical literature.

Patterns of medicinal plant use: an examination of the Ecuadorian Shuar medicinal flora using contingency table and binomial analyses.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Botanical pharmacopoeias are non-random subsets of floras, with some taxonomic groups over- or under-represented. Moerman [Moerman, D.E., 1979. Symbols and selectivity: a statistical analysis of Native American medical ethnobotany, Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1, 111-119] introduced linear regression/residual analysis to examine these patterns. However, regression, the commonly-employed analysis, suffers from several statistical flaws. AIM OF THE STUDY We use contingency table and binomial analyses to examine patterns of Shuar medicinal plant use (from Amazonian Ecuador). MATERIALS AND METHODS We first analyzed the Shuar data using Moermans approach, modified to better meet requirements of linear regression analysis. Second, we assessed the exact randomization contingency table test for goodness of fit. Third, we developed a binomial model to test for non-random selection of plants in individual families. RESULTS Modified regression models (which accommodated assumptions of linear regression) reduced R(2) to from 0.59 to 0.38, but did not eliminate all problems associated with regression analyses. Contingency table analyses revealed that the entire flora departs from the null model of equal proportions of medicinal plants in all families. In the binomial analysis, only 10 angiosperm families (of 115) differed significantly from the null model. These 10 families are largely responsible for patterns seen at higher taxonomic levels. CONCLUSIONS Contingency table and binomial analyses offer an easy and statistically valid alternative to the regression approach.

Ethnobotany as a pharmacological research tool and recent developments in CNS-active natural products from ethnobotanical sources

The science of ethnobotany is reviewed in light of its multi-disciplinary contributions to natural product research for the development of pharmaceuticals and pharmacological tools. Some of the issues reviewed involve ethical and cultural perspectives of healthcare and medicinal plants. While these are not usually part of the discussion of pharmacology, cultural concerns potentially provide both challenges and insight for field and laboratory researchers. Plant evolutionary issues are also considered as they relate to development of plant chemistry and accessing this through ethnobotanical methods. The discussion includes presentation of a range of CNS-active medicinal plants that have been recently examined in the field, laboratory and/or clinic. Each of these plants is used to illustrate one or more aspects about the valuable roles of ethnobotany in pharmacological research. We conclude with consideration of mutually beneficial future collaborations between field ethnobotanists and pharmacologists.

Does the name really matter? The importance of botanical nomenclature and plant taxonomy in biomedical research

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Medical research on plant-derived compounds requires a breadth of expertise from field to laboratory and clinical skills. Too often basic botanical skills are evidently lacking, especially with respect to plant taxonomy and botanical nomenclature. Binomial and familial names, synonyms and author citations are often misconstrued. The correct botanical name, linked to a vouchered specimen, is the sine qua non of phytomedical research. Without the unique identifier of a proper binomial, research cannot accurately be linked to the existing literature. Perhaps more significant, is the ambiguity of species determinations that ensues of from poor taxonomic practices. This uncertainty, not surprisingly, obstructs reproducibility of results-the cornerstone of science. MATERIALS AND METHODS Based on our combined six decades of experience with medicinal plants, we discuss the problems of inaccurate taxonomy and botanical nomenclature in biomedical research. This problems appear all too frequently in manuscripts and grant applications that we review and they extend to the published literature. We also review the literature on the importance of taxonomy in other disciplines that relate to medicinal plant research. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In most cases, questions regarding orthography, synonymy, author citations, and current family designations of most plant binomials can be resolved using widely-available online databases and other electronic resources. Some complex problems require consultation with a professional plant taxonomist, which also is important for accurate identification of voucher specimens. Researchers should provide the currently accepted binomial and complete author citation, provide relevant synonyms, and employ the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III family name. Taxonomy is a vital adjunct not only to plant-medicine research but to virtually every field of science. CONCLUSIONS Medicinal plant researchers can increase the precision and utility of their investigations by following sound practices with respect to botanical nomenclature. Correct spellings, accepted binomials, author citations, synonyms, and current family designations can readily be found on reliable online databases. When questions arise, researcher should consult plant taxonomists.

Uses of saw palmetto (Serenoa repens, Arecaceae) in Florida

Saw palmetto [Serenoa repens (Bartr.) Small] is the most common native palm in the U.S. and, possibly, the most useful. Cattle and wildlife, especially black bears and white-tailed deer, consume the fruits. The flowers are a favorite nectar source for honey bees, and the sprawling, shrubby palm provides excellent cover for birds, reptiles, and small animals. Saw palmettos edible fruits were a staple in the diet of Floridas pre-contact inhabitants. Vegetative parts of the plant supply fiber, wax, and roof thatch. Current interest in saw palmetto stems from its use in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia. An estimated 6 800 000 kg of the fruit are shipped to Europe each year. Preliminary data suggest that the economic value of saw palmetto harvesting may exceed that of cattle grazing, the common use of much saw palmetto habitat.ResumenSaw palmetto (Serenoa repens) es la palma mas común en los Estados Unidos y, quizás se puede decir, es la mas utíl. El ganado y los animates silvestres, particularmente los osos negros y los venados cola-blanca, comen las frutas. Las flores del saw palmetto son una fuente favorita de nectar para las abejas de miel, y la palma extendido y fruticoso ofrece una cubierta excelente para los reptiles, aves, y animates pequenos. Las frutas comestibles del saw palmetto fueron un alimento principal en la dieta de la gente indígena de la Florida. Las panes vegetativas producen fibra, cera, y hojas para hacer techos. Hoy en día, el interés en saw palmetto resulta del su uso para tratar la inflamacion benigna de la glándula próstata. Se estima que una cantidad de 6 800 000 kg de las frutas es exportada a Europa cada año. Estudios preliminares sugieren que el valor económico de la cosecha de saw palmetto excede el valor de ganadería, cual es el uso mas común de la tierra donde crece saw plametto.

Quorum sensing inhibitors of Staphylococcus aureus from Italian medicinal plants.

Morbidity and mortality estimates due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections continue to rise. Therapeutic options are limited by antibiotic resistance. Anti-pathogenic compounds, which inhibit quorum sensing (QS) pathways, may be a useful alternative to antibiotics. Staphylococcal QS is encoded by the AGR locus and is responsible for the production of δ-hemolysin. Quantification of δ-hemolysin found in culture supernatants permits the analysis of AGR activity at the translational rather than transcriptional level. We employed reversed phase high performance chromatographic (RP-HPLC) techniques to investigate the anti-QS activity of 168 extracts from 104 Italian plants through quantification of δ-hemolysin. Extracts from three medicinal plants (Ballota nigra, Castanea sativa, and Sambucus ebulus) exhibited a dose-dependent response in the production of δ-hemolysin, indicating anti-QS activity in a pathogenic MRSA isolate.