Brent J. Danielson

Guidelines of the American Society of Mammalogists for the Use of Wild Mammals in Research

Abstract General guidelines for use of wild mammal species are updated from the 1998 version approved by the American Society of Mammalogists (ASM) and expanded to include additional resources. Included are details on marking, housing, trapping, and collecting mammals. These guidelines cover current professional techniques and regulations involving mammals used in research. Institutional animal care and use committees, regulatory agencies, and investigators should review and approve procedures concerning use of vertebrates at any particular institution. These guidelines were prepared and approved by the ASM, whose collective expertise provides a broad and comprehensive understanding of the biology of nondomesticated mammals in their natural environments.

Spatially explicit population models: Current forms and future uses

Spatially explicit population models are becoming increasingly useful tools for population ecologists, conservation biologists, and land managers. Models are spatially explicit when they combine a population simulator with a landscape map that describes the spatial distribution of landscape features. With this map, the locations of habitat patches, individuals, and other items of interest are explicitly incorporated into the model, and the effect of changing landscape features on population dynamics can be studied. In this paper we describe the structure of some spatially explicit models under development and provide examples of current and future research using these models. Spatially explicit models are important tools for investigating scale-related questions in population ecology, especially the response of organisms to habitat change occurring at a variety of spatial and temporal scales. Simulation models that incorporate real-world landscapes, as portrayed by landscape maps created with geographic information systems, are also proving to be crucial in the development of management strategies in response to regional land-use and other global change processes. Spatially explicit population models will increase our ability to accurately model complex landscapes, and therefore should improve both basic ecological knowledge of landscape phenomena and applications of landscape ecology to conservation and man- agement.

Corridors affect plants, animals, and their interactions in fragmented landscapes

Among the most popular strategies for maintaining populations of both plants and animals in fragmented landscapes is to connect isolated patches with thin strips of habitat, called corridors. Corridors are thought to increase the exchange of individuals between habitat patches, promoting genetic exchange and reducing population fluctuations. Empirical studies addressing the effects of corridors have either been small in scale or have ignored confounding effects of increased habitat area created by the presence of a corridor. These methodological difficulties, coupled with a paucity of studies examining the effects of corridors on plants and plant–animal interactions, have sparked debate over the purported value of corridors in conservation planning. We report results of a large-scale experiment that directly address this debate. In eight large-scale experimental landscapes that control for patch area and test alternative mechanisms of corridor function, we demonstrate that corridors not only increase the exchange of animals between patches, but also facilitate two key plant–animal interactions: pollination and seed dispersal. Our results show that the beneficial effects of corridors extend beyond the area they add, and suggest that increased plant and animal movement through corridors will have positive impacts on plant populations and community interactions in fragmented landscapes.

CORRIDOR USE BY DIVERSE TAXA

One of the most popular approaches for maintaining populations and con- serving biodiversity in fragmented landscapes is to retain or create corridors that connect otherwise isolated habitat patches. Working in large-scale, experimental landscapes in which open-habitat patches and corridors were created by harvesting pine forest, we showed that corridors direct movements of different types of species, including butterflies, small mam- mals, and bird-dispersed plants, causing higher movement between connected than between unconnected patches. Corridors directed the movement of all 10 species studied, with all corridor effect sizes .68%. However, this corridor effect was significant for five species, not significant for one species, and inconclusive for four species because of small sample sizes. Although we found no evidence that corridors increase emigration from a patch, our results show that movements of disparate taxa with broadly different life histories and functional roles are directed by corridors.

Assessing alternative futures for agriculture in Iowa, U.S.A

The contributions of current agricultural practices to environmental degradation and the social problems facing agricultural regions are well known. However, landscape-scale alternatives to current trends have not been fully explored nor their potential impacts quantified. To address this research need, our interdisciplinary team designed three alternative future scenarios for two watersheds in Iowa, USA, and used spatially-explicit models to evaluate the potential consequences of changes in farmland management. This paper summarizes and integrates the results of this interdisciplinary research project into an assessment of the designed alternatives intended to improve our understanding of landscape ecology in agricultural ecosystems and to inform agricultural policy. Scenario futures were digitized into a Geographic Information System (GIS), visualized with maps and simulated images, and evaluated for multiple endpoints to assess impacts of land use change on water quality, social and economic goals, and native flora and fauna. The Biodiversity scenario, targeting restoration of indigenous biodiversity, ranked higher than the current landscape for all endpoints (biodiversity, water quality, farmer preference, and profitability). The Biodiversity scenario ranked higher than the Production scenario (which focused on profitable agricultural production) in all endpoints but profitability, for which the two scenarios scored similarly, and also ranked higher than the Water Quality scenario in all endpoints except water quality. The Water Quality scenario, which targeted improvement in water quality, ranked highest of all landscapes in potential water quality and higher than the current landscape and the Production scenario in all but profitability. Our results indicate that innovative agricultural practices targeting environmental improvements may be acceptable to farmers and could substantially reduce the environmental impacts of agriculture in this region.

The effects of landscape composition and physiognomy on metapopulation size: the role of corridors

We develop and analyze a model that examines the effects of corridor quality, quantity, and arrangement on metapopulation sizes. These ideas were formerly investigated by Lefkovitch and Fahrig (1985) and Henein and Merriam (1990). Our simulations provide results similar to the Henein and Merriam model, indicating that the quality of corridors in a landscape and their arrangement will influence the size of a metapopulation. We then go one step further, describing how corridor arrangement alters the metapopulation, and provide a method for predicting which corridor arrangements should support larger metapopulations. In contrast to the Henein and Merriam model, we find that the number of corridor connections has no influence on the size of a metapopulation in a landscape unless there is an accompanying change in the uniformity of the distribution of corridor connections among patches.

SPATIAL ECOLOGY OF PREDATOR-PREY INTERACTIONS: CORRIDORS AND PATCH SHAPE INFLUENCE SEED PREDATION

Corridors that connect patches of disjunct habitat may be promising tools for mediating the negative impacts of habitat fragmentation, but little is known about how corridors affect ecological interactions. In eight 12-ha experimental landscapes, we ex- amined how corridors affect the impact of invertebrate, rodent, and avian seed predators on pokeweed, Phytolacca americana. Over 13 months in 2000 and 2001, we quantified the effects of patch shape, connectivity, and predator type on the number of seeds germinating in the field (germinants), seed removal, and the viability of remaining seeds. Corridors did not affect the number of P. americana germinants in experimental ex- closures or the viability of seeds remaining in exclosures. However, corridors affected the removal of seeds in a predator-specific manner: invertebrates removed more seeds in un- connected patches, whereas rodents removed more seeds in connected patches. Seed removal by birds was similar in connected and unconnected patches. Total seed removal by all seed predators was not affected by corridors, because invertebrates removed more seeds where rodents removed fewer seeds, and vice versa. Overall, seed predation significantly reduced the number and viability of remaining seeds, and reduced the number of germinants in 2000 but not in 2001. The abundance of naturally occurring P. americana plants in our experimental patches in 2000 decreased with increasing seed removal from exclosures but was not related to viability or germinants in 2000, suggesting that seed removal may shape the distribution and abundance of this species. Complementary patterns of seed removal by rodents and invertebrates suggest that corridors alter the effects of these predator taxa by changing the relative amounts of edge and core (nonedge) habitats in a patch. Because invertebrates and rodents do not completely overlap in the seeds they consume, corridors may change predation pressure on seeds that are primarily consumed by one predator type, with potential consequences for the com- position of plant and seed predator communities.

Rodents balancing a variety of risks: invasive fire ants and indirect and direct indicators of predation risk

We used foraging trays to compare how oldfield mice, Peromyscus polionotus, altered foraging in response to the presence of fire ants, Solenopsis invicta, and in the presence of direct (predator urine) and indirect (sheltered or exposed microhabitat, moonlight, and precipitation) indicators of predation risk. Foraging reductions elicited by S. invicta were greater than reductions in response to well-documented indicators of risk (i.e., moonlit nights) and the presence of predator urine. The presence of S. invicta always led to reduced foraging, but the overall impact of S. invicta was dependent upon microhabitat and precipitation. When S. invicta was not present, foraging was greater in sheltered microhabitats compared to exposed microhabitats. S. invicta made sheltered microhabitats equivalent to more risky exposed microhabitats, and this effect was especially pronounced on nights without precipitation. The effect of S. invicta suggests that interactions with S. invicta may entail a potentially heavy cost or that presence of S. invicta may represent a more reliable indicator of imminent competition or predation compared to indirect cues of risk and predator urine. The presence of S. invicta led to reduced foraging under situations when foraging activity would otherwise be greatest (i.e., under vegetative cover), potentially reducing habitat quality for P. polionotus and the distribution of seeds consumed by rodents.

Applying Ecological Principles to Land-Use Decision Making in Agricultural Watersheds

The use of ecological principles and guidelines in land-use planning, as advocated by the Ecological Society of America Committee on Land Use (Dale et al., Chapter 1) will be critically important to achieving sustainable ecosystems in the next few decades as the world’s human population continues to grow and land area under human management increases. Definition of these principles and articulation of guidelines for use by planners and decision makers is an important first step, but there are many obstacles to the application of ecological guidelines in the land-use planning process. The use of alternative future scenarios can help overcome some of the difficulties associated with application of ecologically healthy land-use practices in agricultural watersheds. With the future scenario approach, abstract goals such as enhancing water quality and restoring biological diversity are translated into specific land-use practices (wetland restoration, riparian buffers, alternative cropping practices, preserves) expected to help achieve these goals. Maps and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) databases of the future alternatives become the spatial data used to evaluate the responses of the various modeled endpoints as well as the response of human perceptions of changes in land use. Alternative futures can be used to frame landscape ecological hypotheses (cf. Ahern 1999); models can then be employed to test those hypotheses and focus additional research on components that are poorly understood.

Patch Shape, Connectivity, and Foraging by Oldfield Mice (Peromyscus polionotus)

Abstract We examined how corridors and patch shape affect foraging by the oldfield mouse (Peromyscus polionotus) by deploying foraging trays and live traps in experimental landscapes with 3 different patch types: patches connected with a corridor, unconnected patches with projecting corridorlike portions (“winged” patches), and unconnected rectangular patches. Corridors did not lead to different levels of activity of P. polionotus among the 3 patch types. Rather, corridors influenced activity by changing patch shape: foraging in seed trays and total number of captures of P. polionotus tended to be greater at the patch center than at the patch edge, but only in connected and winged patches where corridors or wings increased the amount of patch edge relative to the amount of core habitat in the patch. P. polionotus avoided open microhabitats near the patch edge in winged and connected patches, but not open microhabitats near the patch interior, suggesting that predation risk caused shifts in foraging near edges in connected and winged patches. Foraging in corridors and wings was generally low, suggesting that both are high-risk habitats where predation risk is not ameliorated by proximity to vegetative cover. By changing patch shape, corridors caused changes in within-patch activity of P. polionotus, changing foraging patterns and potentially altering the dynamics of P. polionotus and the seeds they consume.