Brent Wolter

COMPARING THE L1 AND L2 MENTAL LEXICON: A Depth of Individual Word Knowledge Model

This paper explores the possibility that, contrary to the findings of past studies, the L1 and L2 mental lexicon may in fact be structurally similar, with depth of individual word knowledge determining a given words degree of integration into the mental lexicon. The paper begins by reviewing the body of evidence relevant to the research question, and then presents the design and results of an investigation comparing nonnative and native speaker patterns of responses in light of depth of word knowledge scores. In discussing the results of the study, a tentative model for the process by which words are integrated into the mental lexicon is proposed, and the long-standing belief that a shift from predominantly syntagmatic to predominantly paradigmatic responses is indicative of lexical development is challenged.

Frequency of Input and L2 Collocational Processing: A Comparison of Congruent and Incongruent Collocations

This study investigated the influence of frequency effects on the processing of congruent (i.e., having an equivalent first language [L1] construction) collocations and incongruent (i.e., not having an equivalent L1 construction) collocations in a second language (L2). An acceptability judgment task was administered to native and advanced nonnative English speakers (L1 Swedish) to assess response times to and error rates for these collocations along with a matched set of unrelated items. The results suggested that advanced learners are highly sensitive to frequency effects for L2 collocations, which seems to support the idea that usage-based models of language acquisition can be fruitfully applied to understanding the processes that underlie L2 collocational acquisition. At the same time, however, the apparent continued influence of the L1 indicates that researchers may also want to draw on other models of language acquisition to gain a fuller understanding of the processes underlying the acquisition of collocations in a L2.

Assessing Proficiency through Word Associations: Is There Still Hope?.

Abstract This study investigates whether it may still be possible to develop a word association test as a means of assessing proficiency in a foreign language, despite the findings of past studies. To this effect, a multiple response word association test was constructed with careful consideration of prompt words as its defining criterion. In addition, a new and simpler method for calculating weighted stereotypy scores for responses was used. This test was administered to a group of learners, and the scores were correlated with C-test scores. In addition, the test was given to a control group of native speakers. The results indicated only moderate support for the notion that a word association test can function to assess proficiency, consistent with the findings of past studies. In view of these results, further suggestions for revisions to the word association/proficiency test are made in the hope that eventually a more effective test can be developed.

The ‘promise’ of three methods of word association analysis to L2 lexical research

The present study is an attempt to empirically test and compare the results of three methods of word association (WA) analysis. Two of the methods – namely, associative commonality and nativelikeness, and lexico-syntactic patterns of associative organization – have been traditionally used in both first language (L1) and second language (L2) associative research and the third one – collocational aspect of associative responses – is a more recent perspective on associative connections. The central assumption behind the study is that each method captures a different aspect of language users’ lexical organization and, in that, their findings may paint a different picture of how the L1 and L2 lexicons compare as proficiency increases. At the same time, the sensitivity of each method to reflect differences related to proficiency may also point to their potential as a research and assessment tool. Three equal size groups of participants (N = 180) at different proficiency levels – native speakers (NSs), second language (L2) advanced and intermediate learners of English – completed a familiarity and a WA test in writing. The tests contained 36 items equated for lexical class (nouns, verbs, and adjectives) and frequency of occurrence (high, mid, and low). The participants’ WAs generated to familiar vocabulary were analysed in three different ways, following the methods of analysis practiced by each of the three traditions under investigation. In the main, the results showed that examining the lexico-syntactic patterns of associative organization as well as the collocational aspect of associative links are two more ‘promising’ ways of looking at WAs than examining them with respect to their nativelike associative commonality.

A further note on simulating word association behaviour in a second language

This article explores some critical methodological and theoretical issues that emerge from recent research into word association behaviour in second language (L2) learners. The studies that we discuss here all use computer simulations as a tool to investigate L2 lexical networks, and to compare these networks with those of first language (L1) speakers. This article broaches some previously unacknowledged complexities in this kind of research, and draws attention to the importance of which assumptions are built into simulation models. The article queries some of the assumptions of our 2002 article (Wilks and Meara, 2002), and provides a reinterpretation of some of the data that we presented there. The article argues that simulation modelling forces us to make critical analyses of assumptions in a way that is not always necessary in less exacting experimental environments.

Processing collocations in a second language: A case of first language activation?

This study investigated the possible influence of first language (L1) collocational patterns on second language (L2) collocational processing. A lexical decision task was used to assess whether collocational patterns acceptable in the L1 but not the L2 would still be activated when processing language entirely in the L2. The results revealed no such activation. Furthermore, L2 speakers did not produce accelerated processing for control collocations that were acceptable in the L2 but not the L1. Based on these findings, we put forth some theoretical suggestions regarding recent research indicating accelerated processing for congruent over incongruent collocations. Finally, our NS control group revealed some unexpected tendencies that cannot be easily accounted for with our current understanding of L1 language processing.

WORD FREQUENCY, COLLOCATIONAL FREQUENCY, L1 CONGRUENCY, AND PROFICIENCY IN L2 COLLOCATIONAL PROCESSING

This study investigated the effects of word frequency, collocational frequency, L1 congruency, and L2 proficiency, on L2 collocational processing. Two groups of L1 Japanese speakers of English (intermediate and advanced) and one group of English native speakers (NSs) performed an online acceptability judgment task on four types of adjective-noun constructions: (1) congruent collocations, (2) English-only collocations, (3) Japanese-only collocations, and (4) baseline items. Response times were analyzed using mixed-effects modeling and correlations. In contrast to NSs, nonnative speakers (NNSs) processed congruent collocations significantly faster than English-only collocations. As for frequency, all three groups demonstrated sensitivity to both word-level and collocation-level frequency. However, the distributions differed across the three groups. We concluded that age/order of acquisition effects (Carroll & White, 1973) provided the best explanation for the congruency results. Regarding the frequency results, we concluded that the findings conflict with claims that NNSs may process formulaic sequences differently than NSs (e.g., Wray, 2002, 2008).