Junko Yamashita

Mutual Compensation between L1 Reading Ability and L2 Language Proficiency in L2 Reading Comprehension.

The present study investigates the contribution of first language (L1) reading ability and second or foreign language (L2) proficiency to L2 reading comprehension, by focusing on the compensation between L1 reading ability and L2 proficiency. Two research questions were addressed: (1) does high L1 reading ability compensate for low L2 language proficiency? (2) does high L2 language proficiency compensate for low L1 reading ability? Participants were 241 Japanese university students learning English as a foreign language. They were divided into three levels (high, middle, low) according to the levels of their L1 reading ability and L2 language proficiency. Effects of these two factors on L2 reading ability were analysed by analysis of variance. A multiple regression analysis to estimate a compensation model was also applied. Results provided positive answers to both research questions. The present study thus demonstrates the mutual compensation between L1 reading ability and L2 proficiency, which works in order to achieve the highest possible level of L2 reading comprehension for readers with different ability backgrounds in L1 reading and L2 proficiency.

Processes of Taking a Gap-Filling Test: Comparison of Skilled and Less Skilled EFL Readers.

The present study investigates how skilled and less skilled readers answered a gap-filling (or rational deletion cloze) test in order to examine whether such tests can measure text-level processing ability. Twelve Japanese EFL students (six skilled and six less skilled readers) completed a gap-filling test while thinking aloud about their test-taking processes. Their verbal protocols were categorized according to the classification of cloze item types developed by Bachman (1985). Results showed that both skilled and less skilled readers used text-level information more frequently than other types of information. The skilled readers, however, used text-level information more frequently than the less skilled readers. Qualitative analysis of the protocols revealed further differences in the use of different types of information between the groups. Although there were several cases where the items were answered correctly with local grammatical clues and extra-textual background knowledge, overall, the gap-filling test generated text-level processing and differentiated well between skilled and less skilled readers. The present study, therefore, supports the claim that a gap-filling test can be used as a test to measure higher order processing ability.

Processing collocations in a second language: A case of first language activation?

This study investigated the possible influence of first language (L1) collocational patterns on second language (L2) collocational processing. A lexical decision task was used to assess whether collocational patterns acceptable in the L1 but not the L2 would still be activated when processing language entirely in the L2. The results revealed no such activation. Furthermore, L2 speakers did not produce accelerated processing for control collocations that were acceptable in the L2 but not the L1. Based on these findings, we put forth some theoretical suggestions regarding recent research indicating accelerated processing for congruent over incongruent collocations. Finally, our NS control group revealed some unexpected tendencies that cannot be easily accounted for with our current understanding of L1 language processing.

A corpus-based validation study of the universal processing hypothesis in English relative clause formation

The present study focuses on spoken and written data in the British National Corpus (BNC). Based on a review of recent studies on English relative clauses, we formulated a Universal Processing Hypothesis (OS>OO>SS>SO) as target hypothesis to be validated using a corpus data approach. A computer program was designed to calculate the frequency of appearance of the four types of relative clauses (OS, OO, SS, and SO). The results indicated this hypothesis to be a valid predictor of frequency of appearance of relative clauses in the domain for written corpus texts. However, it is not supported in context-governed spoken material. Limitations of the present investigation and the direction of future research are also discussed.

WORD FREQUENCY, COLLOCATIONAL FREQUENCY, L1 CONGRUENCY, AND PROFICIENCY IN L2 COLLOCATIONAL PROCESSING

This study investigated the effects of word frequency, collocational frequency, L1 congruency, and L2 proficiency, on L2 collocational processing. Two groups of L1 Japanese speakers of English (intermediate and advanced) and one group of English native speakers (NSs) performed an online acceptability judgment task on four types of adjective-noun constructions: (1) congruent collocations, (2) English-only collocations, (3) Japanese-only collocations, and (4) baseline items. Response times were analyzed using mixed-effects modeling and correlations. In contrast to NSs, nonnative speakers (NNSs) processed congruent collocations significantly faster than English-only collocations. As for frequency, all three groups demonstrated sensitivity to both word-level and collocation-level frequency. However, the distributions differed across the three groups. We concluded that age/order of acquisition effects (Carroll & White, 1973) provided the best explanation for the congruency results. Regarding the frequency results, we concluded that the findings conflict with claims that NNSs may process formulaic sequences differently than NSs (e.g., Wray, 2002, 2008).