Brian F. Aull

A wafer-scale 3-D circuit integration technology

The rationale and development of a wafer-scale three-dimensional (3-D) integrated circuit technology are described. The essential elements of the 3-D technology are integrated circuit fabrication on silicon-on-insulator wafers, precision wafer-wafer alignment using an in-house-developed alignment system, low-temperature wafer-wafer bonding to transfer and stack active circuit layers, and interconnection of the circuit layers with dense-vertical connections with sub-Omega 3-D via resistances. The 3-D integration process is described as well as the properties of the four enabling technologies. The wafer-scale 3-D technology imposes constraints on the placement of the first lithographic level in a wafer-stepper process. Control of wafer distortion and wafer bow is required to achieve submicrometer vertical vias. Three-tier digital and analog 3-D circuits were designed and fabricated. The performance characteristics of a 3-D ring oscillator, a 1024 times 1024 visible imager with an 8-mum pixel pitch, and a 64 times 64 Geiger-mode laser radar chip are described

Three-dimensional imaging laser radar with a photon-counting avalanche photodiode array and microchip laser

We have developed a threedimensional imaging laser radar featuring 3-cm range resolution and single-photon sensitivity. This prototype direct-detection laser radar employs compact, all-solid-state technology for the laser and detector array. The source is a Nd:YAG microchip laser that is diode pumped, passively Q-switched, and frequency doubled. The detector is a gated, passively quenched, two-dimensional array of silicon avalanche photodiodes operating in Geigermode. After describing the system in detail, we present a three-dimensional image, derive performance characteristics, and discuss our plans for future imaging three-dimensional laser radars.

Arrays of InP-based Avalanche Photodiodes for Photon Counting

Arrays of InP-based avalanche photodiodes (APDs) with InGaAsP absorber regions have been fabricated and characterized in the Geiger mode for photon-counting applications. Measurements of APDs with InGaAsP absorbers optimized for 1.06 mum wavelength show dark count rates (DCRs) <20 kHz for room-temperature operation with photon detection efficiency (PDE) up to 50% and a reset or dead time of 1s. APDs with InGaAs absorbers optimized for 1.55 μm wavelength and 240 K temperature have DCRs <20 kHz, PDE up to 45%, and a reset time of ~6 mus. Arrays for both wavelengths have been fabricated and packaged with GaP microlenses (of 100 and 50 μm pitch) and CMOS readout integrated circuits (ROICs). Comparisons are made between ROICs that operate in the framed-readout mode as well as those that operate in continuous-readout mode.

Laser Radar Imager Based on 3D Integration of Geiger-Mode Avalanche Photodiodes with Two SOI Timing Circuit Layers

A 64times64 laser-radar (ladar) detector array with 50mum pixel size measures the arrival times of single photons using Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (APD). A 3-tier structure with active devices on each tier is used with 227 transistors, six 3D vias and an APD in each pixel. A 9b pseudorandom counter in the pixel measures time. Initial imagery shows 2ns time quantization

Three-dimensional laser radar with APD arrays

MIT Lincoln Laboratory is actively developing laser and detector technologies that make it possible to build a 3D laser radar with several attractive features, including capture of an entire 3D image on a single laser pulse, tens of thousands of pixels, few-centimeter range resolution, and small size, weight, and power requirements. The laser technology is base don diode-pumped solid-state microchip lasers that are passively Q-switched. The detector technology is based on Lincoln-built arrays of avalanche photodiodes operating in the Geiger mode, with integrated timing circuitry for each pixel. The advantage of these technologies is that they offer the potential for small, compact, rugged, high-performance systems which are critical for many applications.

A Study of Crosstalk in a

We demonstrate a 256 × 256 passive photon counting imager based on hybridization of back-illuminated silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes to an all-digital CMOS counting chip. Photon detection efficiencies in the 10%-20% are observed at visible wavelengths. The detection efficiency is currently limited by optical crosstalk that leads to elevation of dark count rates as the bias voltage on the photodiodes is increased. Both the time dependence of dark count activity during a gate time and the spatial structure of dark images were successfully explained using crosstalk-based models.

256 \times 256

We report monolithic arrays of silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes, and their integration with arrays of CMOS processing circuits. This is an enabling technology for a new class of focal plane arrays whose pixels can detect single photons as well as time their arrival with sub-ns precision. The CMOS circuits can be tailored to support either 3D laser radar applications, where the time of arrival of the first detected photon is of interest, or high-dynamic-range passive imaging, where the rate of arrival of photons is of interest. This combination of capabilities is not supported by traditional focal plane technologies such as CCDs and active-pixel sensors.

Photon Counting Imager Based on Silicon Geiger-Mode Avalanche Photodiodes

Jigsaw three-dimensional (3D) imaging laser radar is a compact, light-weight system for imaging highly obscured targets through dense foliage semi-autonomously from an unmanned aircraft. The Jigsaw system uses a gimbaled sensor operating in a spot light mode to laser illuminate a cued target, and autonomously capture and produce the 3D image of hidden targets under trees at high 3D voxel resolution. With our MIT Lincoln Laboratory team members, the sensor system has been integrated into a geo-referenced 12-inch gimbal, and used in airborne data collections from a UH-1 manned helicopter, which served as a surrogate platform for the purpose of data collection and system validation. In this paper, we discuss the results from the ground integration and testing of the system, and the results from UH-1 flight data collections. We also discuss the performance results of the system obtained using ladar calibration targets.

Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode arrays integrated with CMOS timing circuits

In this paper, InGaAsP/InP APDs is designed for detection of near infrared (1-1.5 /spl mu/m wavelength) light and GaN APDs designed for detection of ultraviolet (<365 nm wavelength) light. This paper will also describe ladar measurements which use arrays of G-M APDs matched with timing circuits to produce 3D images with near-infrared photons.

Jigsaw phase III: a miniaturized airborne 3-D imaging laser radar with photon-counting sensitivity for foliage penetration

This paper summarizes progress of a project to develop and advance the maturity of photon-counting detectors for NASA exoplanet missions. The project, funded by NASA ROSES TDEM program, uses a 256×256 pixel silicon Geigermode avalanche photodiode (GM-APD) array, bump-bonded to a silicon readout circuit. Each pixel independently registers the arrival of a photon and can be reset and ready for another photon within 100 ns. The pixel has built-in circuitry for counting photo-generated events. The readout circuit is multiplexed to read out the photon arrival events. The signal chain is inherently digital, allowing for noiseless transmission over long distances. The detector always operates in photon counting mode and is thus not susceptible to excess noise factor that afflicts other technologies. The architecture should be able to operate with shot-noise-limited performance up to extremely high flux levels, >106 photons/second/pixel, and deliver maximum signal-to-noise ratios on the order of thousands for higher fluxes. Its performance is expected to be maintained at a high level throughout mission lifetime in the presence of the expected radiation dose.