Brian Ogle

Village Poultry Production Systems in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA), supported by checklists and intensive case studies on individual households, was carried out in three villages at three different altitudes in the central highlands of Ethiopia. The chicken production system in each village is described and the problems are discussed. More than 60% of the families kept chickens, and in most cases the women owned and managed the birds and controlled the cash from the sales. The production systems followed were mainly low-input and small-scale, with 7–10 mature birds per household, reared in the back yards with inadequate housing, feeding and health care. The average egg production per clutch was 15–20, with 3–4 clutches per year. The mean number of eggs set per bird was 12.9±2.2 (n = 160), depending on the size of the bird and season, and the hatching rate was 80.9%±11.1%, range 44%–100% (n = 160). Poultry meat and eggs were generally accepted and appreciated in all three villages. In addition to the small amount of cash income they provide, scavenging chickens have nutritional, cultural and social functions. The flock composition, price of poultry and poultry products, disease outbreaks and hatching of chicks were strongly affected by season. Disease was cited as the most important problem by most of the members of the community, followed by predation, lack of feed, poor housing, insufficient water and parasites. Disease periodically decimated the flocks, and consequently, about 50% of the eggs produced were incubated in order to replace the birds that had died. The major source of loss in the system was the high mortality of chicks (61%) that occurred between hatching and the end of brooding at 8 weeks of age. The system was characterized by no or few inputs and a low output level. The major input was the cost of foundation stock, but after that virtually no cost was involved. The major source of feed for the birds was from the scavenging feed resource base, which comprised table leftovers, small grain supplements and anything edible from the immediate environment.

Comparison of total tract digestibility, development of visceral organs and digestive tract of Mong cai and Yorkshire × Landrace piglets fed diets with different fibre sources.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of piglet age and dietary fibre source on the development of visceral organs and the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), and on growth performance and total tract apparent digestibility (TTAD) in local [pure-breed Mong cai (MC)] and exotic [Landrace x Yorkshire (LY)] piglets. The experimental diets contained different fibre sources: C (basal diet), RB (basal diet + rice bran), SPVM (basal diet + sweet potato vine meal) and CReM (basal diet + cassava residue meal). The neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content in diet C and the fibrous diets was 8.8% and 17.1%-17.7% respectively (dry matter basis). Collection of faecal samples to determine TTAD was carried out for five consecutive days before the experiment was finished (63 days). The piglets were killed at the age of 10 days (before being given the same solid feed), 30 days (weaning, 20 days after solid feed introduced) and 63 days (33 days after being given the different fibrous diets) when the length of intestinal segments, weight of organs (liver, heart, kidneys) and empty weight of the GIT (stomach, small intestine, caecum and colon + rectum) were measured. As the age of animals increased, the relative weight of organs and the length of intestines (expressed on a mass-specific basis) decreased (p < 0.05), and the weight of GIT increased (p < 0.001). The piglets fed fibrous diets had heavier GIT than those fed diet C with the highest values in CReM (p < 0.05). The colon + rectum length was not significantly different among C, RB and SPVM, but was shorter than in CReM (p < 0.05). Coefficient of total tract apparent digestibility (CTTAD) of nutrients in the fibrous diets was lower than in C (p < 0.01). Average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) in C, RB and CReM were not different and were better than in SPVM (p < 0.01). There were no significant differences in the weights of organs between the two breeds at day 10, 30 and 63 (p > 0.05). The weight and length of GIT were not significantly different between the two breeds at day 10 and day 30, but were greater for MC at day 63. The caecum and colon + rectum at 10 and 30 days were longer in MC than in LY (p < 0.001). The relative development of GIT post-weaning was higher than pre-weaning, the difference being most apparent in MC. As a result at 63 days, MC had heavier visceral organs and GIT, and longer intestines on fibrous diets than LY (p < 0.05). The MC at 63 days had higher CTTAD of organic matter, gross energy, crude fibre and NDF (p < 0.001) and ether extract and crude protein (p < 0.05), but lower ADG and poorer FCR than LY (p < 0.001). It can be concluded that the GIT of the MC piglets developed more rapidly than LY when they were introduced to solid feed, and that the difference was more marked on the fibrous diets and after weaning, which resulted in higher total tract digestibility of nutrients in MC compared with LY. Cassava residue meal was better digested than RB and SPVM, and supported higher live weight gains.

Utilization of ensiled sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) leaves as a protein supplement in diets for growing pigs.

Four diets were formulated with protein from fishmeal (FM), groundnut cake (GC), ensiled sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L. (Lam.)) leaves (SP) or ensiled sweet potato leaves with lysine (SPL). In experiment 1, 24 crossbred (Large White×Mong Cai) growing pigs were allocated randomly by sex into four groups of six pigs and given one of four diets. Experiment 2 was conducted using 16 crossbred pigs (Large White×Mong Cai) at four farms. On each farm, pigs were allocated to two experimental groups. One group was fed the FM diet and the other group the SPL diet. In experiment 1, the daily live weight gains (DLWG) were significantly higher (p<0.05) for the FM and SPL treatments (542 and 536 g/day, respectively) than for the GC and SP treatments (464 and 482 g/day, respectively). Feed intake was highest (2.0 kg/day) for the SPL and lowest (1.7 kg/day) for the GC treatment (p<0.05) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) was highest (3.8 kg/kg gain) for SP and lowest (3.5 kg/kg gain) for FM (p<0.05). There were no significant differences for carcase measurements among diets (p>0.05). The feed cost per kg live weight gain was lowest for the SP and SPL diets compared to the FM and GC diets. The results of experiment 2 show that there were no significant differences in feed intake, DLWG and FCR between the two diets (p>0.05). In conclusion, sweet potato leaves can replace fishmeal and groundnut cake in traditional Vietnamese diets for growing pigs.

Survey on the prevalence of diarrhoea in pre-weaning piglets and on feeding systems as contributing risk factors in smallholdings in Central Vietnam

A cross-sectional survey on the prevalence of diarrhoea in pre-weaning piglets, and on management and feeding systems under farm conditions was carried out in Thua Thien Hue Province. Faecal samples were collected from 63 piglets without, and 90 piglets with diarrhoea to determine the occurrence of Salmonella, Escherichia coli (E. coli) and different E. coli antigens (K88, K99 and 987P). The prevalence of diarrhoea was higher in the rainy season than in the dry season (33% vs 18%) and the results indicated differences in prevalence between areas. Salmonella and E. coli were found to the same extent in faeces from piglets without and with diarrhoea. All E. coli antigens were isolated from piglets without and with diarrhoea. However, the frequency was much higher in piglets suffering from diarrhoea. In piglets with diarrhoea antigen K88 was found in 26% and 20% of the samples, antigen K99 in 37% and 24% of the samples, and antigen 987P in 31% and 32% of the samples collected in the dry and rainy seasons, respectively. Nutrient supply for sows and for piglets was low in comparison with feeding standards, which may be a contributory factor to the high incidence of diarrhoea in piglets. Thus, the nutrition of sows as well as piglets could be important components in the aetiology of the disease and needs to be studied further.

Effects of Scavenging on Diet Selection and Performance of Rhode Island Red and Fayoumi Breeds of Chicken Offered a Choice of Energy and Protein Feeds

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of scavenging on diet selection and the comparative performance of Rhode Island Red and Fayoumi breeds of chicken. The breeds were compared under three feeding/management regimes: (1) a choice of ground noug cake and cracked maize, with confinement; (2) a choice of ground noug cake and cracked maize, but being allowed to scavenge for about 6 h; and (3) a commercial layer mash, with confinement. Scavenging did not change the pattern of diet selection. About 90% of the daily intake of both the confined and scavenging birds under choice feeding comprised maize. The efficiency of feed utilization and nutrient intake were also similar in these groups. The Fayoumi were more efficient in terms of feed conversion, although the egg production performance of the two breeds did not vary significantly. Scavenging hens had a significantly lower egg production than the birds under confinement offered a choice of feeds. Scavenging significantly increased the mortality in both breeds. In conclusion, scavenging affected the performance adversely and, despite the provision of a choice of feed providing a source of energy and protein, both the scavenging and confined birds on choice feeding failed to eat sufficient to meet their protein requirements.

Scavenging Pullets in Burkina Faso: Effect of Season, Location and Breed on Feed and Nutrient Intake

A study on scavenging local (n = 64) and crossbred (n = 64) pullets was undertaken in the dry and rainy seasons in two villages in Burkina Faso: Korea in the arid northern Sahelian region and Bounouna in the sub-humid south. After 4 weeks of scavenging, the birds were killed and the crop contents were subjected to physical and chemical analysis. Cereal grains, brans, green and dry forages, insects/worms and household leftovers were the main physical components. The proportion of cereal grains was higher in the rainy season, whereas the proportion of bran, peanut and sand/grit was higher in the dry season (p < 0.05). The proportion of kitchen waste and millet/milo grains was higher in local than in crossbred birds, whereas the opposite was the case for millet/milo bran (p < 0.05). Rice and local beer residues were not found in the crops of birds from Korea. Dry matter, ash, crude fibre and potassium contents were higher in the dry season (p < 0.05), while calculated metabolizable energy content was higher in the rainy season (p < 0.05). There were no location or breed effects on chemical composition parameters (p > 0.05), except that potassium content was higher in Korea. Mean live weight at slaughter was 806 ± 22.0 g (local breed) and 881 ± 22.0 g (crossbreds) (p < 0.05). Digestive organ weights, including contents, were higher for crossbred birds (p < 0.05). Gastrointestinal tract percentage was higher in the rainy season and in Bounouna (p < 0.05). The nutrient composition of the crop contents indicates the need for supplementation, particularly of protein, for higher levels of production.

Effect of season and location on the crop contents of local and improved scavenging hens in northern Vietnam.

An experiment was carried out to determine the effects of season (dry and rainy), location (lowland and highland villages) and breed (local and improved) on the amount and physical and chemical composition of the scavenged feed. This was done by crop content analysis of a total of 192 Ri (local) and 192 Luongphuong (LP, improved) hens at 20 weeks of age. The mean fresh weights of the crop contents were 16.9 and 33.3 g, for the dry and rainy seasons, respectively (p < 0.001), 24.3 and 25.9 g, for the Ri and LP breeds, respectively (p < 0.001), and 25.0 and 25.3 g, for the lowland and highland village, respectively (p > 0.05). The proportions of contents were human food leftovers 38.4% and 24.3%, grains 20.9% and 33.7%, insects and worms 9.6% and 11.2%, and green materials 8.8% and 13.8%, for the dry and rainy seasons, respectively (p < 0.05). The proportion of green materials was higher in the LP hens and highland villages, while the proportion of grains was higher in the Ri hens and lowland village (p < 0.05). The dry matter, crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), total ash (Ash), calcium (Ca), phosphorus, and metabolizable energy (ME) contents were significantly higher for the rainy season (p < 0.01), and CP, Ash, Ca and ME were higher for the LP hens. The crude fibre content was higher in the dry season, and in the Ri hens and highland village (p < 0.001). The total and essential amino acid concentrations were significantly higher in the rainy season, and in the LP hens (p < 0.05), but were not different between locations (p > 0.05). Nutrient intakes from scavenging were estimated at between 20% and 30% of requirements.

Effect of Diet and Management System on Growing Duck Performance in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam

ABSTRACT Two experiments were conducted in the spring-summer rice cropping season in 1998 and 2000 on smallholdings in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam to evaluate the effects of diet and scavenging system on the performance of local and crossbred ducklings. Experiment 1 included four treatments with three replicates (n = 120 local type ducklings): (1) ducklings confined and fed a traditional diet (TrC); (2) confined and given a diet of broken rice plus duckweed (DwC); (3) confined and given a commercial mash diet (MaC); and (4) scavenging in rice plots with the mash diet supplemented (MaSc). All diets were provided so ad libitum consumption was achieved. Live weights at slaughter were 1.08, 1.28, 1.31, and 1.37 kg (2.38, 2.82, 2.88, and 3.01 lb) (P < 0.001) for the TrC, DwC, MaC, and MaSc treatments, respectively. The weights of the carcass, breast and thigh muscles, heart, and liver were greater (P < 0.05) for the scavenging ducks than for the confined birds. Feed costs per kg live weight gain were highest for the TrC treatment and lowest for the DwC treatment, if the duckweed was grown on-farm. Experiment 2 included four treatments with three replicates (farms) (n = 120 growing crossbred (Cherry Valley 3 Local) ducklings): confined, with high (CP20C), medium (CP17C), or low (CP14C) crude protein (CP) diet, and scavenging in the rice plots plus the medium protein level diet (CP17Sc). Live weights at slaughter were 2.51, 2.50, 2.45, and 2.62 kg (5.52, 5.50, 5.39, and 5.76 lb) (P < 0.05) for the CP20C, CP17C, CP14C, and CP17Sc treatments, respectively. Breast muscle and gizzard weights were greatest (P < 0.05) on the CP20C and CP17Sc treatments. Margins (sale of birds minus feed costs) were highest for the CP14C and CP17Sc treatments. It was concluded that there were no deleterious effects of scavenging on duck performance or feed costs. Providing high protein diets improved performance, but had no effect on overall profitability. Feeding high levels of duckweed in the diet reduced feed costs, provided that the duckweed was grown on-farm.

Effect of supplementation on the feed intake and performance of confined and scavenging crossbred growing chickens in Burkina Faso.

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the performance of crossbred growing chickens (Rhode Island Red × indigenous Burkina Faso hens) from 6 to 17 weeks of age, under five feeding/management regimes: (1) CMx(+), confined and given a mixed feed containing cracked maize and cowpea and a vitamin–mineral premix ad libitum; (2) CS(+), confined and offered ad libitum a choice of cracked maize and cowpea with the premix; (3) ScS(+), scavenging from 09:00 to 16:00 with the diet in treatment (2) available from 16:00 to 09:00; (4) ScS(−), treatment (3) but without the premix; and (5) ScO, scavenging only, with no supplements provided. Daily dry matter (DM) intake was highest for CS(+) (43.5 g), and lowest for CMx(+) (33.6 g) (p < 0.05), with intermediate intakes for ScS(+) and Sc(−) of 36.7 g and 36.2 g, respectively. The ratios of intakes of cowpea to maize were 50:50, 21:79, 27:73 and 22:78 for CMx(+), CS(+), ScS(+) and ScS(−), respectively (p < 0.05). Dietary concentrations of crude protein (CP) were 15.7%, 11.5%, 12.3% and 11.6% of DM for CMx(+), CS(+), ScS(+) and ScS(−), respectively. Average daily gains (ADG) were 8.15 g, 5.24 g, 6.03 g, 5.36 g and 4.45 g for CMx(+), CS(+), ScS(+), ScS(−) and ScO, respectively, and were significantly higher for CMx(+) (p < 0.05). Feed conversion ratio was highest for CS(+) and lowest for CMx(+). ADG of the males (6.44 g) was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that of the females (5.86 g). Breast and thigh muscle weights were highest for ScS(+) (p < 0.05).

Effect of Scavenging and Supplementation of Lysine and Methionine on the Feed Intake, Performance and Carcase Quality of Improved Dual-Purpose Growing Chickens

An experiment was conducted with 192 improved dual-purpose chickens from 4 to 12 weeks of age to evaluate the effects of management system (confinement and scavenging) and amino acid supplementation (with and without lysine and methionine) of a low-protein diet on the feed and nutrient intake, performance and carcase quality of improved chickens. Mean daily dry matter (DM), crude protein and metabolizable energy intakes were higher for the confined birds (65 g, 13.3 g and 966 kJ, respectively) than for the scavenging birds (58 g, 12.0 g and 868 kJ, respectively) (p < 0.001) and higher for the unsupplemented (63.3 g, 13.0 g and 945 kJ, respectively) than for the supplemented birds (59.5 g, 12.2 g and 889 kJ, respectively) (p < 0.001). Mean DM intake was 68.0 and 54.9 g/day for the males and females (p < 0.001), respectively. Average daily weight gains (ADG) were higher for scavenging (26.9 g) than for confined birds (23.9 g) (p < 0.001), higher for supplemented (27.6 g) than for unsupplemented birds (23.2 g) (p < 0.001) and higher for males (27.5 g) than for females (23.3 g) (p < 0.001). Carcase, breast and thigh percentages were higher for supplemented than for unsupplemented birds (p < 0.001) and higher for scavenging than for confined birds (p < 0.001). Abdominal fat percentage was significantly lower for the scavenging treatments compared to the corresponding confined treatments (p < 0.001). Feed conversion ratios (kg feed/kg gain) and feed costs/kg gain were lower for the scavenging than for the confinement treatments, and lower for the supplemented than for the unsupplemented birds (p < 0.001). Supplementation of lysine and methionine in diets that were suboptimal in terms of protein and essential amino acids improved performance and carcase quality and reduced feed costs, in particular of the confined growers.