Brian W. Szuster

Low Salinity Inland Shrimp Farming in Thailand

Abstract Thailand has been the worlds largest exporter of cultured shrimp since 1991. Despite problems with poor environmental conditions and disease outbreaks that led to the failure and abandonment of numerous farms along the coast, Thai shrimp production has remained high. A primary factor has been the establishment of low salinity shrimp farming for black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) in areas much further inland from the coast than once thought feasible. The rapid development of low salinity culture in freshwater areas that are predominantly used for paddy rice cultivation, however, now represents a major land and water management challenge. The debate over the potential environmental impacts of inland shrimp farming revolves around three key questions: i) the ability of so-called “closed” production systems to minimize environmental impacts, ii) the capacity of the Thai government to enforce environmental protection regulations, and iii) the potential emergence of cumulative environmental impacts. This paper concludes that a ban on inland shrimp farming is a prudent measure, needed to protect soil and water quality in freshwater areas.

Sasi and marine conservation in Raja Ampat, Indonesia.

Raja Ampat, Indonesia, possesses the greatest diversity of corals and reef fishes on the planet. The area is a priority for marine conservation for the provincial government, local communities, and major international nongovernmental organizations such as The Nature Conservancy and Conservation International. Traditional marine resource management practices in the region, referred to as sasi, have the potential to support conservation objectives. This article contends that while traditional marine resource management systems may support conservation, they must be reinforced by a supportive social structure and governance system to remain relevant in a rapidly changing world. Two villages in Raja Ampat were studied to gain a better understanding of sasi and how this practice has been affected by cultural, political, and economic change. These villages illustrate how the role of religious authorities, access to alternative livelihoods, proximity to urban centers, and capacity for monitoring and enforcement may influence the effectiveness of marine resource management systems. Our research suggests that the continued relevance of sasi in marine resource management relies on the support of influential local leaders and businesses and government regulations that reinforce traditional resource use practices.

Congruence among encounters, norms, crowding, and management in a marine protected area.

Over the past few decades, recreation and tourism use has increased at many marine protected areas, generating concerns about impacts of this increasing use on experiences and conditions at these areas (e.g., crowding, conflict). This article uses data from Molokini Shoal Marine Life Conservation District in Hawai’i to examine: (a) reported encounters, crowding, normative tolerances for various use levels, and support of use related management strategies at this site; and (b) whether users who encounter higher use levels than their norms feel more crowded and are more supportive of restrictive management strategies. Data were obtained from onsite pre-trip and post-trip questionnaires of 712 passengers on commercial snorkel and dive tours visiting this site. Norms were measured with acceptance of 12 photographs depicting levels of boat use. On average, users would accept seeing no more than approximately 16 boats at one time at Molokini and this number was observed on over 20% of trips to the site. Although the majority of users expected to escape crowds at Molokini, 67% felt crowded and up to 79% supported actions that would directly restrict use at this site (e.g., limit number of boats). Users who encountered more boats than their normative tolerance felt more crowded and were more supportive of these management strategies. Findings suggest that this marine protected area is operating over its capacity and management is needed to improve experiences and conditions.

Scuba Diver Perceptions and Evaluations of Crowding Underwater

This article describes three exploratory investigations of dimensions influencing scuba diver perceptions of crowding in underwater settings. Five focus groups of five to eight divers each suggested that number, proximity, and clustering of divers were important crowding dimensions. A multiple sort procedure with 60 other divers revealed that number and proximity were most important. A survey of 101 additional divers confirmed that number and proximity of divers significantly influenced crowding, but the number of divers was the strongest determinant. Photographs were used to test crowding dimensions underwater. Although additional research is needed to confirm these findings, this study serves as a guide for future research on social aspects of dive site planning and management.

Coastal shrimp farming in Thailand: searching for sustainability

Shrimp farming in Thailand provides a fascinating example of how the global trade in agricultural commodities can produce rapid transformations in land use and resource allocation within coastal regions of tropical developing nations. These transformations can have profound implications for the long-term integrity of coastal ecosystems, and represent a significant challenge to government agencies attempting to manage land and water resources. Thailand’s shrimp-farming industry has suffered numerous regional ‘boom and bust’ production cycles that created considerable environmental damage in rural communities. At a national scale, these events were largely masked, however, by a shifting cultivation strategy and local adaptations in husbandry techniques. This chapter outlines the need to upgrade planning systems, improve water supply infrastructure and enhance extension training services within coastal communities to address ongoing systemic environmental management problems within the Thai shrimp-farming industry.

Cumulative environmental effects of low salinity shrimp farming in Thailand

The cumulative environmental effects of low salinity shrimp farming in the Bangpakong River Basin, eastern Thailand, were investigated using a GIS-assisted approach. Water supply, water quality, and agricultural land use were used to represent key environmental resources. Shrimp farming is a major consumer of freshwater, but cumulative effects on water supplies are probably negligible because of ample rainfall and similar water consumption of rice and shrimp crops. Assessment of water quality effects focused on organic nutrient loading. Low salinity shrimp farming was a significant new source of organic pollution. Agricultural land use effects were evaluated using land conversion and soil suitability ratings. Soil productivity has been degraded as a result of direct salinization of shrimp pond bottom soils; indirect salinization may affect a considerably larger area.

Shellfish aquaculture in Thailand

Abstract Shellfish have been farmed in Thailand for over 100 years, and during this time, traditional culture techniques have gradually given way to more sophisticated and capital intensive methods. Farmed shellfish production increased from 73,976 to 138,202 metric tonnes between 1988 and 2000. Major species currently under cultivation include the green mussel Perna viridis, the blood cockle Anadara granosa, and three species of oyster (Saccostrea cucullata, Crassostrea belcheri, and Crassostrea iredalei). The horse mussel Arcuatula arcuatula is also produced in limited amounts for animal feed, and gastropods such as the abalone Haliotis asinina and the spotted babylon Babylonia areolata are in the initial phases of commercialization. With the globalization of fisheries commodity markets, the Thai shellfish sector is slowly implementing more rigorous management and certification processes. These procedures are required to access European, American and Japanese markets, and would also serve to decrease the risk of gastrointestinal disease for local consumers.

Pre-trip expectations and post-trip satisfaction with marine tour interpretation in Hawaii: Applying the norm activation model

ABSTRACT This article examines environmental education by focusing on recreationist expectations for interpretation on marine tours, satisfaction with this interpretation and whether expectations were met, and how these perceptions correlate with components of the norm activation model. Recreationists surveyed before and after tours to Molokini, Hawaii (n = 439) had high pre-trip expectations for interpretation (e.g., about reefs, history), but satisfaction was lower and expectations for many recreationists were not met. Those who had their expectations met had higher problem awareness and ascribed more responsibility (i.e., norm activation) than those who did not, suggesting that interpretation is desired and may promote pro-environmental behavior.

Detecting and Managing Coastal Fisheries and Aquaculture Gear Using Satellite Radar Imagery

Fishing and shellfish aquaculture are important sources of income for coastal communities in Thailand and other parts of tropical Asia, but environmental impacts associated with these small-scale activities can effect water quality, nearshore habitats, and fish populations. The management of coastal fisheries and aquaculture has, therefore, become a major concern for government fisheries officials who are searching for cost effective measures to improve the regulation of these sectors. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images from the RADARSAT-1 satellite were acquired to determine if stationary fishing and aquaculture gears within a coastal study site in the Upper Gulf of Thailand could be identified, and if automatic signature separation of gear types was possible. The use of SAR imagery for a coastal monitoring application was also evaluated and the potential of this technology to improve resource management outcomes considered.

Manta ray tourism: interpersonal and social values conflicts, sanctions, and management

ABSTRACT Scuba diving and snorkeling with manta rays (M. birostris, M. alfredi) at sites in Hawaii, USA, have become popular, with upward of 30 tour boats and 300 participants daily. This article examined whether conflicts are occurring within and between these activities and if so, what types of conflict are prevalent and how would participants respond (support restrictions, sanction others). Data from surveys of 444 participants following evening trips to view manta rays showed that 79% of snorkelers experienced in-group conflict with other snorkelers, and 53% of scuba divers reported conflict with other divers. Most conflicts were interpersonal (physical interactions among individuals interfering with experiences). Conflict behaviors included bumping into people (up to 92%), not being aware (up to 73%), and blinding people with underwater flashlights (up to 56%). There were fewer out-group conflicts between different activities (snorkelers vs. scuba divers) and minimal social values conflicts (negative preconceptions, no physical interactions among individuals). Participants supported limiting numbers of snorkelers, scuba divers, and boats, and providing education on how to behave with others. Those experiencing conflicts were more supportive of these strategies and more likely to directly sanction participants causing conflicts, but were not more likely to indirectly sanction managers and operators.