Mark D. Needham

Clarifying interpersonal and social values conflict among recreationists.

Recreation conflict has been examined relative to interpersonal (i.e., goal interference) conflict and differences in social values. Although this distinction is useful, prior methodologies for operationalizing the two concepts can result in a confound where individuals in the interpersonal conflict category could be expressing goal interference, social values, or both types of conflict. This research note: (a) clarifies the conceptual distinction by incorporating an additional variable that sorts respondents into the most appropriate conflict categories, and (b) uses a multivariate approach to provide an overall evaluation of the magnitude of each type of conflict. Data were obtained from on-site surveys of cross-country skiers (n = 264) and snowmobilers (n = 203) at two Colorado locations. Consistent with previous research, an asymmetrical relationship was found between skiers and snowmobilers, with skiers experiencing more conflict. Cluster analyses of six conflict items indicated that 36% of skiers reported no conflict, 30% noted a conflict in social values, and 34% experienced interpersonal conflict. By comparison, 81% of snowmobilers indicated no conflict, 0% social values conflict, and 19% interpersonal conflict. Few respondents expressed both interpersonal and social values conflict. Whether these levels of conflict are acceptable or unacceptable depends on management objectives and desired outcomes.

Hunters’ Behavior and Acceptance of Management Actions Related to Chronic Wasting Disease in Eight States

The impacts of chronic wasting disease (CWD) on hunters’ behavior and beliefs about acceptable management actions are not clearly understood. This article presents findings from an initial phase of a multi-stage, multi-state effort to address these knowledge gaps. Data were obtained from mail surveys (n = 659) of resident and nonresident deer hunters in eight states and elk hunters in three states. Hunters were presented with hypothetical situations of increasing: (1) CWD prevalence (all eight states), and (2) human health risks (two states). Logistic regression equations estimated that at current prevalence levels in some states, 3% (residents) to 5% (nonresidents) of hunters would stop hunting deer/elk in their state. If 50% of the deer or elk across the state were infected, approximately 42% (residents) and 54% (nonresidents) would stop hunting deer/elk in their state. In hypothetical situations where a hunter died from CWD at this prevalence level, the percentage was 68%. Potential for conflict indices (PCI) showed that as prevalence and human health risks increased, acceptability of testing and lethal management increased and acceptability of allowing CWD to take its natural course decreased.

Moving Beyond the “I” in Motivation: Attributes and Perceptions of Conservation Volunteer Tourists

Much research has examined why volunteer tourists volunteer abroad. However, little work has explored (1) if and how destination and organization attributes motivate volunteers or (2) manager perceptions of volunteer motivations. We identified attributes that pulled conservation volunteer tourists to the country, organization, and volunteer project. We compared these motivations and reasons for volunteering abroad with manager and volunteer coordinator perceptions of volunteer motivations. To collect data, we engaged in participant observation and conducted interviews with 36 volunteer tourists, 2 managers, and 3 volunteer coordinators at an Ecuadorian conservation volunteer project. Volunteers listed a range of motivations for their choices (e.g., reserve mission, price). Managers and coordinators correctly identified some motivations for volunteering abroad and selecting the destination, organization, and project (e.g., travel, price). However, they mentioned fewer reasons than volunteers and overlooked several major factors, especially altruistic and project-specific reasons. We discuss implications for managers and organizations, tourism theory, and future research.

Motivations and Normative Evaluations of Summer Visitors at an Alpine Ski Area

This article examines motivations of people visiting an alpine ski area in the summer season and their norms regarding acceptable and unacceptable trail conditions and densities of use at this area. Data were obtained from on-site surveys of summer visitors (n = 422) at the Whistler Mountain ski area in British Columbia, Canada. Cluster analysis of several reasons for visiting revealed three groups ranging from a group who rated all motivation factors as most important to a group who only considered the alpine scenery as important. Norms were measured using evaluations of photographs depicting increasing trail widths and densities of sightseers/hikers and mountain bikers. Compared to the other two groups, the group who only considered the scenery important had lower normative acceptance of increasing densities of use and wider trails and had more norm crystallization or consensus about acceptable and unacceptable conditions. Research and management implications are discussed.

Value Orientations, Awareness of Consequences, and Participation in a Whale Watching Education Program in Oregon

Whale Watching Education Programs A. Christensen et al. ALICIA CHRISTENSEN, SHAWN ROWE, AND MARK D. NEEDHAM Marine Resource Management Program, College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA Oregon Sea Grant and Department of Science and Mathematics Education, Hatfield Marine Science Center, Oregon State University, Newport, Oregon, USA Department of Forest Resources, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA

Hawaii's real life marine park: interpretation and impacts of commercial marine tourism in the Hawaiian Islands

The Hawaiian Islands are a popular tourism destination for over seven million travelers annually. Commercial marine tourism in Hawai‘i (e.g., snorkel and dive trips, wild dolphin swims, whale watching) is a multi-million dollar industry attracting visitors from around the world. By using proper interpretation, these operators may reduce some impacts on the marine environment. This article examines marine tour excursion practices and interpretation through analysis of participant observations on 29 tour boats and semi-structured interviews with 59 tour boat employees, operators, and other experts in the Hawaiian Islands. Results show that many operators and clients participate in depreciative behaviors such as dumping food scraps, feeding fish, trampling coral, and harassing marine life. The majority of tour companies offer some form of interpretation, but overlook aspects of the environment and focus primarily on equipment use and personal safety. This article highlights the lack of environmentally oriented interpretation and explores possible links between depreciative behavior and interpretation. Research and management implications are discussed.

Congruence among encounters, norms, crowding, and management in a marine protected area.

Over the past few decades, recreation and tourism use has increased at many marine protected areas, generating concerns about impacts of this increasing use on experiences and conditions at these areas (e.g., crowding, conflict). This article uses data from Molokini Shoal Marine Life Conservation District in Hawai’i to examine: (a) reported encounters, crowding, normative tolerances for various use levels, and support of use related management strategies at this site; and (b) whether users who encounter higher use levels than their norms feel more crowded and are more supportive of restrictive management strategies. Data were obtained from onsite pre-trip and post-trip questionnaires of 712 passengers on commercial snorkel and dive tours visiting this site. Norms were measured with acceptance of 12 photographs depicting levels of boat use. On average, users would accept seeing no more than approximately 16 boats at one time at Molokini and this number was observed on over 20% of trips to the site. Although the majority of users expected to escape crowds at Molokini, 67% felt crowded and up to 79% supported actions that would directly restrict use at this site (e.g., limit number of boats). Users who encountered more boats than their normative tolerance felt more crowded and were more supportive of these management strategies. Findings suggest that this marine protected area is operating over its capacity and management is needed to improve experiences and conditions.

Activity Substitutability and Degree of Specialization Among Deer and Elk Hunters in Multiple States

This article examines relationships between hunter specialization and activity substitutability. Data were obtained from a mail survey of 6,983 deer hunters in eight states and 2,584 elk hunters in three states. Activity substitutability was measured by asking what activity would provide the same satisfaction as deer or elk hunting. Between 41% and 59% of deer hunters and 38% to 46% of elk hunters reported substitutes such as fishing and other big game hunting. Cluster analyses of hunter skill, centrality, equipment, and experience revealed four specialization groups (casual, intermediate, focused, and veteran). Casual hunters were most likely to report a substitute followed by intermediates, focused, and veterans. This inverse relationship between concepts was consistent across states and species hunted. Veteran hunters were most likely to report other big game hunting as a substitute, whereas casual hunters in many states were most likely to consider fishing as a substitute.

Scuba Diver Perceptions and Evaluations of Crowding Underwater

This article describes three exploratory investigations of dimensions influencing scuba diver perceptions of crowding in underwater settings. Five focus groups of five to eight divers each suggested that number, proximity, and clustering of divers were important crowding dimensions. A multiple sort procedure with 60 other divers revealed that number and proximity were most important. A survey of 101 additional divers confirmed that number and proximity of divers significantly influenced crowding, but the number of divers was the strongest determinant. Photographs were used to test crowding dimensions underwater. Although additional research is needed to confirm these findings, this study serves as a guide for future research on social aspects of dive site planning and management.

Skill level and normative evaluations among summer recreationists at alpine ski areas

Abstract This article examines acceptability norms regarding use density reported by hikers and mountain bikers with varying skill levels. It was hypothesized that highly skilled recreationists would rate increasing use densities as less acceptable. In addition, it was predicted that as skill increases, normative agreement/consensus (crystallization) and importance (norm intensity) would increase. Data were obtained from surveys of hikers (n = 275) and mountain bikers (n = 125) at the Whistler Mountain ski area in British Columbia, Canada. Skill level was measured on a four‐point scale from “novice” to “expert.” Norms were measured by acceptability ratings of photographs containing increasing densities of hikers and mountain bikers. As predicted, when hikers’ skill level increased, acceptability of greater hiker densities decreased and norm crystallization and intensity increased. Conversely, no relationships were found between mountain bikers’ skill and their acceptability, agreement, and importance of mountain biker density. Possible explanations for these findings and implications for management and future research are discussed.