Bronislaw J. Verhage

Perceived risk: A cross-cultural phenomenon?

Abstract The existence of a positive relationship between perceived risk and brand loyalty has been accepted in the United States since the 1960s. Recognizing this, marketers frequently give out free samples or coupons and provide reassurances through warranties to induce trial and subsequent acceptance of their brand by the consumer. However, validity of the concept of perceived risk with respect to international markets has been lacking. This paper responds to the call for cross-national research of behavioral concepts and tests the applicability of perceived risk in a cross-national setting. While the limited scope of the study (four countries and two products) does not permit definitive statements, results indicate that perceived risk can be used to analyze consumer behavior patterns in different cultures. The findings also suggest that the risk reduction strategy of brand loyalty may not be widely employed by consumers outside the U.S.A.

Seeking redress for consumer dissatisfaction: The role of attitudes and situational factors

The value of consumer complaints in consumer protection and in the effective management of the firm has been demonstrated. This paper reports a survey of Dutch consumers to determine the extent to which consumer attitudes toward seeking redress through complaints is correlated with actual complaint behavior. It concludes that situation-specific factors are stronger influences on whether consumers complain than general attitudes and discusses how these factors can be used to encourage legitimate consumer complaints.ZusammenfassungEs ist erwiesen, daß Verbraucherbeschwerden sowohl für den Schutz des Verbrauchers wie auch für eine effektive Unternehmensführung von Bedeutung sind. Der vorliegende Beitrag berichtet über eine Untersuchung bei 304 holländischen Verbrauchern zu der Frage, in welchem Ausmaße die Einstellungen von Verbrauchern zu Beschwerdeverhalten zusammenhängen mit dem tatsächlichen Beschwerdeverhalten. Einstellungen wurden dabei über eine 15-item-Skala gemessen, die einer Faktoren-Analyse unterzogen wurde und drei Bereiche erfaßt: (a) gesellschaftliche Normen über Beschwerdeverhalten, (b) Kosten und Mühen des Beschwerdeverhaltens und (c) vermutliche Ansprechbarkeit der Verkäufer durch Verbraucherbeschwerden.Eine multiple Regressions-Analyse ergab eine signifikante, jedoch nur schwache Beziehung zwischen dem ersten Einstellungsfaktor und einer Beschwerde-Neigung, die erfaßt wurde als allgemeine Selbsteinschätzung hinsichtlich der Tendenz, bei Unzufriedenheiten mit Beschwerdeverhalten zu reagieren. Es zeigte sich keine signifikante Beziehung zwischen den drei Einstellungsfaktoren und dem Beschwerdeverhalten aufgrund einer spezifischen Verbraucherunzufriedenheit. Weitere Analysen zeigten, daß vielmehr vier situative Variable in signifikanter Beziehung zum tatsächlichen Beschwerdeverhalten stehen, nämlich (a) der Produktpreis, (b) die Schwere des Problems mit einem nicht-zufriedenstellenden Produkt, (c) die wahrgenommene Mühe, die durch eine Beschwerde verursacht wird, und (d) die wahrgenommene Bereitschaft des Verkäufers, die Unzufriedenheit zu beseitigen.Die Ergebnisse dieser Untersuchung und Befunde früherer Untersuchungen legen den Schluß nahe, daß das Beschwerdeverhalten bei Unzufriedenheit eher von situationsspezifischen Faktoren beeinflußt wird als von generellen Einstellungen. Solche generellen Einstellungen können jedoch das Beschwerdeverhalten über längere Zeit bei einer größeren Zahl von Unzufriedenheits-Fällen beeinflussen. Der Beitrag schließt mit einer Erörterung, wie Verbraucher bei berechtigter Unzufriedenheit zu Beschwerden ermuntert werden können, und welche zusätzlichen Forschungslücken geschlossen werden müssen.

Cross-cultural differences in consumer attitudes and their implications for complaint management

Abstract While several authors have urged the tailoring of the marketing mix to cultures served by multinational organizations, no research has specifically addressed the need to handle product-related customer dissatisfaction differently in different countries. This article presents evidence documenting the need to make such culture-specific adjustments and reports a cross-national comparison of consumer attitudes toward seeking redress in two countries.

Will a Global Marketing Strategy Work? An Energy Conservation Perspective

To what extent, and under what conditions, a marketing strategy can and should be standardized across national boundaries is an issue still to be resolved in the marketing literature. Proponents of standardization point to economies of scale whereas opponents stand firm on segmentation. This study is an attempt to gain insight to the issue of standardization through cross-cultural research in four nations. The results of this study of energy conservation suggest that market segments, similar on attitudes and behavior, do exist across countries. Within such a specific segment, a global strategy may be appropriate, but a single global strategy, aimed at all segments and countries, would not be effective.

Evaluating Export Middlemen in Alternative Channel Structures

Although instability characterises export channels, little research has examined the interfirm evaluations that are related to a manufacturer′s continued use of export middlemen. In this research, a manufacturer′s evaluations of its international intermediary are divided into performance, dependence, and importance dimensions. Theoretical and empirical literatures are used to frame hypotheses linking each evaluative dimension to an aspect of the manufacturer′s channel design strategy. The results show that manufacturers′ evaluations of their middlemen are systematically related to the economic and organisational strategies used by manufacturers. The discussion draws important implications for managing the indirect export channel.

New Product Development in Dutch Companies: The Idea Generation Stage

Suggests that the key to success for most European countries in maintaining their position in the world market place is a continuous process of innovation in industry. Looks at the situation in The Netherlands, providing a framework of phases for the product development process. Investigates the innovation process in nine Dutch companies, revealing that product development is poorly structured.

Role perceptions of services: A cross-cultural comparison with behavioral implications☆

Abstract This cross-cultural research examines the interaction between consumers and providers of nine different services, ranging from medical specialists to department store clerks, in the context of role theory. This approach views the service encounter as an event where consumers and providers play certain roles. Services can be classified in each culture by two dimensions from the psychological literature: power (to influence or control transactions) and commitment (referring to the long-term service relationship). Consumers in the United States and the Netherlands were asked to classify the services using power and commitment scales—and to predict how they would react in case of a problem. The results were then used to classify the nine services in the US and Dutch environment and to generate a matrix of role relationships. While Dutch consumers indicated greater likelihood of complaining for all services, the Dutch pattern across services appears to be remarkably similar to the American pattern. The identification of similarities is useful to managers in transferring successful marketing campaigns across service industries and countries.

Performing Export Tasks in Industrial Channels of Distribution

This article examines industrial channel management in an international context by analysing whether the industrial firm performs export functions itself or whether it transfers these functions to an export middleman. Export theory suggests that certain firm and market characteristics determine whether these tasks will be self‐performed or spun off to a channel intermediary. Hypotheses based on theory are tested on a sample of 225 Dutch exporters. Export sales volume was found to be associated with the performance of tasks required to stimulate, but not supply, foreign demand. However, industrial exporters tend to self‐perform tasks when middlemen are located in distant foreign markets. The findings suggest that an industrial firm′s desire to control export task performance offsets economic incentives to transfer certain channel functions to export intermediaries.

Assertiveness and Aggression in Marketplace Exchanges Testing Measure Equivalence

Assertive and aggressive behaviors may occur in marketplace exchanges, and measures of these behaviors have been developed in the United States. The appropriateness of these measures for use in other developed Western cultures was studied by examining functional/ conceptual and scalar equivalence of the measures in the Netherlands. An acceptable level of equivalence was found for the aggression construct and measure; however, some inequivalence for assertiveness was demonstrated. Assertive behaviors that involve seeking redress for marketplace problems were seen as more aggressive in the Netherlands than in the United States, and data suggested that assertive behaviors may be more location-specific in the Netherlands.

Household Purchasing Decisions: How do American and Dutch Consumers Differ?

Investigates husband/wife influence on purchasing decisions for a variety of goods and services in the Netherlands and in the USA. Reveals that there are substantial differences between the two countries, with the US wife having a greater autonomous role than the Dutch. Indicates that this could have a major influence on promotion, product and distribution strategy decisions for international marketers.