Bruce Barut

Positional cloning of zebrafish ferroportin1 identifies a conservedvertebrate iron exporter

Defects in iron absorption and utilization lead to iron deficiency and overload disorders. Adult mammals absorb iron through the duodenum, whereas embryos obtain iron through placental transport. Iron uptake from the intestinal lumen through the apical surface of polarized duodenal enterocytes is mediated by the divalent metal transporter, DMT1 (refs 1,2,3). A second transporter has been postulated to export iron across the basolateral surface to the circulation. Here we have used positional cloning to identify the gene responsible for the hypochromic anaemia of the zebrafish mutant weissherbst. The gene, ferroportin1, encodes a multiple-transmembrane domain protein, expressed in the yolk sac, that is a candidate for the elusive iron exporter. Zebrafish ferroportin1 is required for the transport of iron from maternally derived yolk stores to the circulation and functions as an iron exporter when expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Human Ferroportin1 is found at the basal surface of placental syncytiotrophoblasts, suggesting that it also transports iron from mother to embryo. Mammalian Ferroportin1 is expressed at the basolateral surface of duodenal enterocytes and could export cellular iron into the circulation. We propose that Ferroportin1 function may be perturbed in mammalian disorders of iron deficiency or overload.

Mitoferrin is essential for erythroid iron assimilation

Iron has a fundamental role in many metabolic processes, including electron transport, deoxyribonucleotide synthesis, oxygen transport and many essential redox reactions involving haemoproteins and Fe–S cluster proteins. Defective iron homeostasis results in either iron deficiency or iron overload. Precise regulation of iron transport in mitochondria is essential for haem biosynthesis, haemoglobin production and Fe–S cluster protein assembly during red cell development. Here we describe a zebrafish mutant, frascati (frs), that shows profound hypochromic anaemia and erythroid maturation arrest owing to defects in mitochondrial iron uptake. Through positional cloning, we show that the gene mutated in the frs mutant is a member of the vertebrate mitochondrial solute carrier family (SLC25) that we call mitoferrin (mfrn). mfrn is highly expressed in fetal and adult haematopoietic tissues of zebrafish and mouse. Erythroblasts generated from murine embryonic stem cells null for Mfrn (also known as Slc25a37) show maturation arrest with severely impaired incorporation of 55Fe into haem. Disruption of the yeast mfrn orthologues, MRS3 and MRS4, causes defects in iron metabolism and mitochondrial Fe–S cluster biogenesis. Murine Mfrn rescues the defects in frs zebrafish, and zebrafish mfrn complements the yeast mutant, indicating that the function of the gene may be highly conserved. Our data show that mfrn functions as the principal mitochondrial iron importer essential for haem biosynthesis in vertebrate erythroblasts.

Deficiency of glutaredoxin 5 reveals Fe-S clusters are required for vertebrate haem synthesis.

Iron is required to produce haem and iron–sulphur (Fe–S) clusters, processes thought to occur independently. Here we show that the hypochromic anaemia in shiraz (sir) zebrafish mutants is caused by deficiency of glutaredoxin 5 (grx5), a gene required in yeast for Fe–S cluster assembly. We found that grx5 was expressed in erythroid cells of zebrafish and mice. Zebrafish grx5 rescued the assembly of Δgrx5 yeast Fe–S, showing that the biochemical function of grx5 is evolutionarily conserved. In contrast to yeast, vertebrates use iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1) to sense intracellular iron and regulate mRNA stability or the translation of iron metabolism genes. We found that loss of Fe–S cluster assembly in sir animals activated IRP1 and blocked haem biosynthesis catalysed by aminolaevulinate synthase 2 (ALAS2). Overexpression of ALAS2 RNA without the 5′ iron response element that binds IRP1 rescued sir embryos, whereas overexpression of ALAS2 including the iron response element did not. Further, antisense knockdown of IRP1 restored sir embryo haemoglobin synthesis. These findings uncover a connection between haem biosynthesis and Fe–S clusters, indicating that haemoglobin production in the differentiating red cell is regulated through Fe–S cluster assembly.

The Zebrafish moonshine Gene Encodes Transcriptional Intermediary Factor 1γ, an Essential Regulator of Hematopoiesis

Hematopoiesis is precisely orchestrated by lineage-specific DNA-binding proteins that regulate transcription in concert with coactivators and corepressors. Mutations in the zebrafish moonshine (mon) gene specifically disrupt both embryonic and adult hematopoiesis, resulting in severe red blood cell aplasia. We report that mon encodes the zebrafish ortholog of mammalian transcriptional intermediary factor 1γ (TIF1γ) (or TRIM33), a member of the TIF1 family of coactivators and corepressors. During development, hematopoietic progenitor cells in mon mutants fail to express normal levels of hematopoietic transcription factors, including gata1, and undergo apoptosis. Three different mon mutant alleles each encode premature stop codons, and enforced expression of wild-type tif1γ mRNA rescues embryonic hematopoiesis in homozygous mon mutants. Surprisingly, a high level of zygotic tif1γ mRNA expression delineates ventral mesoderm during hematopoietic stem cell and progenitor formation prior to gata1 expression. Transplantation studies reveal that tif1γ functions in a cell-autonomous manner during the differentiation of erythroid precursors. Studies in murine erythroid cell lines demonstrate that Tif1γ protein is localized within novel nuclear foci, and expression decreases during erythroid cell maturation. Our results establish a major role for this transcriptional intermediary factor in the differentiation of hematopoietic cells in vertebrates.

Network of coregulated spliceosome components revealed by zebrafish mutant in recycling factor p110

The spliceosome cycle consists of assembly, catalysis, and recycling phases. Recycling of postspliceosomal U4 and U6 small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) requires p110/SART3, a general splicing factor. In this article, we report that the zebrafish earl grey (egy) mutation maps in the p110 gene and results in a phenotype characterized by thymus hypoplasia, other organ-specific defects, and death by 7 to 8 days postfertilization. U4/U6 snRNPs were disrupted in egy mutant embryos, demonstrating the importance of p110 for U4/U6 snRNP recycling in vivo. Surprisingly, expression profiling of the egy mutant revealed an extensive network of coordinately up-regulated components of the spliceosome cycle, providing a mechanism compensating for the recycling defect. Together, our data demonstrate that a mutation in a general splicing factor can lead to distinct defects in organ development and cause disease.

Role of interleukin 6 in the growth of myelomaderived cell lines

The role of interleukin 6 (IL-6) in the growth of five multiple myeloma-derived cell lines was characterized. The U266 and RPMI 8226 cell lines demonstrated increased DNA synthesis when cultured with exogenous IL-6, expressed IL-6 cell surface receptors (IL-6Rs) and expressed mRNA for IL-6R. However, these cells did not secrete detectable IL-6 protein, and a neutralizing antibody to IL-6 did not inhibit their growth. Three other myeloma-derived cell lines ARH-77, IM-9 and HSSultan did not respond to exogenous IL-6, secrete IL-6 or express cell surface IL-6Rs. The IL-6 responsive cell lines bore late B-cell surface antigens (Ags), CD38 and PCA-1, whereas those lines which were non-IL-6 responsive strongly expressed B1 (CD20) and B4 (CD19) Ags, representing earlier stages in B-cell differentiation. Finally, the two IL-6 responsive cell lines did not express Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) proteins; in contrast, EBV encoded proteins typically expressed during latency could be detected in the these non-IL-6 responsive lines, confirming infection with virus. These studies clarify the heterogeneity observed in the myeloma cell line phenotype and biology and suggest that the U266 and RPMI 8226 cell lines, which express IL-6 cell surface receptors and are IL6 responsive, may be useful for further study of IL-6 signal transduction in and related IL-6 mediated growth of myeloma in vivo. In contrast, those cell lines which are IL-6-independent provide a model for further study of EBV transformation and IL-6-dependent growth mechanisms in malignancy.

The zon laboratory guide to positional cloning in zebrafish.

Zebrafish genome sequencing project has improved efficiency of positional cloning in zebrafish and traditional chromosome walking by isolating large insert genomic libraries has become a past. However, the genetic principles underlying the positional cloning still form the foundation for current chromosome walking using the genome sequence assemblies and related genomic sequence and clone information. This guide intends to summarize our accumulated experience in positional cloning using the current genomic resources and tools, and provide a practical guide to positional and/or candidate cloning of mutants of interest.

The chianti zebrafish mutant provides a model for erythroid-specific disruption of transferrin receptor 1.

Iron is a crucial metal for normal development, being required for the production of heme, which is incorporated into cytochromes and hemoglobin. The zebrafish chianti (cia) mutant manifests a hypochromic, microcytic anemia after the onset of embryonic circulation, indicative of a perturbation in red blood cell hemoglobin production. We show that cia encodes tfr1a, which is specifically expressed in the developing blood and requisite only for iron uptake in erythroid precursors. In the process of isolating zebrafish tfr1, we discovered two tfr1-like genes (tfr1a and tfr1b) and a single tfr2 ortholog. Abrogation of tfr1b function using antisense morpholinos revealed that this paralog was dispensable for hemoglobin production in red cells. tfr1b morphants exhibited growth retardation and brain necrosis, similar to the central nervous system defects observed in the Tfr1 null mouse, indicating that tfr1b is probably used by non-erythroid tissues for iron acquisition. Overexpression of mouse Tfr1, mouse Tfr2, and zebrafish tfr1b partially rescued hypochromia in cia embryos, establishing that each of these transferrin receptors are capable of supporting iron uptake for hemoglobin production in vivo. Taken together, these data show that zebrafish tfr1a and tfr1b share biochemical function but have restricted domains of tissue expression, and establish a genetic model to study the specific function of Tfr1 in erythroid cells.

Lack of a role of interleukin 11 in the growth of multiple myeloma

Interleukin (IL) 11 is a recently described lymphokine which, like IL-6, stimulates normal hematopoietic murine and human hematopoietic progenitor cells and therefore has potential value for either enhancing hematopoiesis in disease states or augmenting hematopoietic recovery after myeloablative therapies. Since IL-6 is known to promote the growth of human myeloma, either in an autocrine or paracrine fashion, we examined the effect of IL-11 on the growth of a murine plasmacytoma cell line, human myeloma-derived cell lines, and freshly isolated human myeloma cells. Interleukin 11 does increase DNA synthesis by the murine plasmacytoma line T10 in the presence of neutralizing antibody to IL-6. However, neither human myeloma cells nor derived cell lines express IL-11 mRNA; secrete IL-11; express IL-11 cell surface receptors; or augment either DNA synthesis or Ig secretion in response to exogenous IL-11. These findings strongly suggest that IL-11 does support the growth of a murine plasmacytoma cell line but does not play a role in the growth of either freshly isolated human myeloma cells or derived cell lines.

The role and regulation of friend of GATA-1 (FOG-1) during blood development in the zebrafish

The nuclear protein FOG-1 binds transcription factor GATA-1 to facilitate erythroid and megakaryocytic maturation. However, little is known about the function of FOG-1 during myeloid and lymphoid development or how FOG-1 expression is regulated in any tissue. We used in situ hybridization, gain- and loss-of-function studies in zebrafish to address these problems. Zebrafish FOG-1 is expressed in early hematopoietic cells, as well as heart, viscera, and paraspinal neurons, suggesting that it has multifaceted functions in organogenesis. We found that FOG-1 is dispensable for endoderm specification but is required for endoderm patterning affecting the expression of late-stage T-cell markers, independent of GATA-1. The suppression of FOG-1, in the presence of normal GATA-1 levels, induces severe anemia and thrombocytopenia and expands myeloid-progenitor cells, indicating that FOG-1 is required during erythroid/myeloid commitment. To functionally interrogate whether GATA-1 regulates FOG-1 in vivo, we used bioinformatics combined with transgenic assays. Thus, we identified 2 cis-regulatory elements that control the tissue-specific gene expression of FOG-1. One of these enhancers contains functional GATA-binding sites, indicating the potential for a regulatory loop in which GATA factors control the expression of their partner protein FOG-1.