Bruce L. Alford

The Effect of Brand Attitude and Brand Image on Brand Equity

Brand equity has been criticized by some for an alleged lack of managerial relevance. This paper reports a study which operationalizes brand equity and empirically tests a conceptual model adapted from the work of Aaker (1991) and Keller (1993) considering the effect of brand attitude and brand image on brand equity. The results indicate that brand equity can be manipulated at the independent construct level by providing specific brand associations or signals to consumers and that these associations will result in images and attitudes that influence brand equity. The results suggest that focusing on the constructs that create brand equity is more relevant to managers than trying to measure it as an aggregated financial performance outcome.

The role of affect in consumer satisfaction judgments of credence-based services

Abstract In the search for satisfaction, researchers have developed the disconfirmation model to represent the process used to arrive at such a judgment. This model has evolved through the use of product-based research. The applicability of such a model to the services setting has not been explored. At question is the applicability of the components of the disconfirmation model and the relationships among these components. The current research attempts to assess the applicability of the disconfirmation model, along with the affective extension suggested by Oliver (1993), to the services setting. Affect is posited to have a direct positive effect on performance evaluations, satisfaction with the service encounter, and repeat patronage intentions. Disconfirmation is hypothesized to have a direct positive effect on satisfaction with the service encounter. A videotaped service encounter was shown to 163 southeastern university students. The structural model tested has an acceptable fit to the data (χ23df = 3.81, p ≥ .05). An alternative structural model without the affect constructs was assessed to test the influence of affect. The alternative model provided an unacceptable fit to the data (χ210df = 137.36, p ≤ .05). The chi-square difference test of the two nested models revealed that the model containing affect is a significant improvement over the model without affect (χ27df = 133.55, p ≤ .05). The influence of disconfirmation, which is prevalent in product-based applications of the model, was not significant in the current service setting. Affect has a significant influence on performance evaluations only. The significant influence of affect in the model may be due to the nature of services (e.g., experience and credence qualities).

Learning and Performance Goal Orientation of Salespeople Revisited: The Role of Performance-Approach and Performance-Avoidance Orientations

This study revisits the conceptualization and operationalization of salesperson goal orientation, a mid-level construct in the achievement motivation model. Goal orientation has, in recent sales studies, been conceptualized to be comprised of a learning and a performance goal orientation. However, studies examining goal orientation’s relationship with salesperson performance and behavior have found inconsistent results. Guided by seminal studies in achievement motivation theory, this study proposes that performance goal orientation is comprised of two distinct components: a performanceapproach goal orientation and a performance-avoidance goal orientation, the latter of which is grounded in fear of failure. The contemporary model of goal orientation is tested and compared with the classic model. The results indicate that the classic model more accurately captures salesperson goal orientation and its relationship with salesperson performance. Notably, a performance-avoidance goal orientation is negatively related to salesperson performance.

Looks matter in developing consumer‐brand relationships

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to describe research which introduces attractiveness as a moderator of the relationship between the perceived brand personality and evaluations of the brand as a relationship partner in a product marketing context.Design/methodology/approach – This research tests hypotheses concerning the relationship between the perceived personality of a test brand and perceptions regarding the quality of the test brand as a relationship partner, and the moderating effects of the test brands perceived attractiveness. The research is based upon a survey of 142 graduate and undergraduate students attending four universities in the southeastern USA. Reliability and validity of the measures were tested using structural equation modeling and the hypotheses tested using multiple linear regression.Findings – This research provides empirical evidence, in a product‐marketing context, that perceived attractiveness significantly influences the consumer‐brand relationship development process ...

Advertised Reference Price Effects on Consumer Price Estimates, Value Perception, and Search Intention

Abstract Research suggests that consumers respond to reference prices relative to some internal standards developed from experience. In dispute, however, is whether reference prices that are implausible produce the same effects on consumers as plausible reference prices. The two integrative reference price models available in the literature predict conflicting results, and empirical studies have not provided consistent support for either. Based upon a three-stage study involving prices for tennis shoes and telephones, results of this research support a differential response between plausible and implausible advertised reference price exposure conditions. Findings suggest that implausible prices have no effect on consumers internal price continuum, perception of value, or intention to search. Furthermore, the findings suggest that plausible reference prices affect a consumers price continuum differently than previous models predict. The authors discuss these findings, propose a modified reference price model, and provide practical implications for marketers.

The Effects of Salesperson Need for Achievement and Sales Manager Leader Reward Behavior

A sample of 312 salespeople from diverse industries was used to develop a model that examined the influence of salesperson need for achievement and sales manager positive leader reward behavior on several key organizational outcomes. The organizational outcome variables examined were goal acceptance, sales performance, and organizational commitment. The results suggest that a salesperson’s need for achievement may lead to higher performance, but not necessarily commitment to the organization. However, positive leader reward behavior may strengthen a salesperson’s organizational commitment. The findings, along with suggestions for sales managers, are discussed.

Internet Channel and Cannibalization: An Empirical Assessment of Sales Agents’ Perspective

Organizations increasingly use Internet channels to enhance performance, consolidate existing markets, and reach new markets. The overarching benefits realized through the Internet oftentimes come at the expense of perceived job insecurity among individuals in the organization. This study explores perceptions of job insecurity among sales agents when the Internet seems to cannibalize their business, customer relationships, and jobs. Results suggest that sales agents’ perceptions of cannibalization negatively influence their effort, job satisfaction, and job performance, whereas relational capital moderates the influence of these perceptions. In a post hoc analysis, the impact of perceived cannibalization is found to be more severe for less experienced sales agents than for more experienced sales agents.

Pioneering the Development of a Scale to Measure E-Tailer Image

ABSTRACT Given the risks and returns associated with conducting business online, practitioners and academics alike are urged to gain an understanding of the strategic variables that can offer firms competitive advantages. A strategic variable of importance to traditional retailers is the image that is promoted to consumers. To date the concept of online retail or “e-tail” image has not been assessed in marketing literature. This study forwards the development of a multi-dimensional scale to measure e-tailer image. By way of extensive review of retail image literature, the authors develop a six-dimensional definition of e-tailer image consisting of the functional dimensions of price, merchandise, and service, and the affective dimensions of atmosphere, self/site image congruence, and convenience. Through interviews with online consumers and experts in the field, an item pool is generated to represent e-tailer image. The results of three empirical tests, the first consisting of a student sample and the second and third consisting of online shoppers, are reported. Utilizing exploratory/confirmatory factor analysis and correlation analysis, findings confirm the proposed dimensionality, reliability and validity of the e-tailer image scale. The most important contribution of the study revolves around the fact that it takes the first logical step in measuring a very illusive, yet crucial, strategic marketing variable.

Summary Brief — The Brand Personality as a Basis for Consumer-Brand Relationships

This paper presents the results of an empirical study on the efficacy of the perceived brand personality as a basis for consumer-brand relationships. The results indicate that the perceived brand personality affects both the strength and character of consumer-brand relationships.

The mediation effects of sticker shock

Purpose – This study aims to extend prior studies by examining the mediation effects of sticker shock on the relationship between price discount and buying intention. Sticker shock refers to the discrepancy between a brand’s sale price (SP) and an individual’s internal reference price (IRP) (Winer 1985). Design/methodology/approach – Prior marketing research on sticker shock is primarily model-based. The authors employed a between-subject experimental design, and hypotheses were tested using a series of regression functions (Baron and Kenny 1986). Findings – The results suggest the effect of price discount on buying intention is partially mediated by sticker shock. Practical implications – The research results suggest that consumers take into account price messages from different sources, such as advertised reference price, SP and IRP. IRP is a key reference point that consumers use to develop the “gain” or “loss” perception. Firms may apply different strategies to influence consumers’ internal reference ...