C. Dominik Güss

Metacognition of Problem-Solving Strategies in Brazil, India, and the United States

Metacognition, the observation of ones own thinking, is a key cognitive ability that allows humans to influence and restructure their own thought processes. The influence of culture on metacognitive strategies is a relatively new topic. Using Antoniettis, Ignazis and Peregos questionnaire on metacognitive knowledge about problem-solving strategies (2000), five strategies in three life domains were assessed among student samples in Brazil, India, and the United States (N=317), regarding the frequency, facility, and efficacy of these strategies. To investigate cross-cultural similarities and differences in strategy use, nationality and uncertainty avoidance values were independent variables. Uncertainty avoidance was expected to lead to high frequency of decision strategies. However, results showed no effect of uncertainty avoidance on frequency, but an effect on facility of metacognitive strategies. Comparing the three cultural samples, all rated analogy as the most frequent strategy. Only in the U.S. sample, analogy was also rated as the most effective and easy to apply strategy. Every cultural group showed a different preference regarding what metacognitive strategy was most effective. Indian participants found the free production strategy to be more effective, and Indian and Brazilian participants found the combination strategy to be more effective compared to the U.S. participants. As key abilities for the five strategies, Indians rated speed, Brazilians rated synthesis, and U.S. participants rated critical thinking as more important than the other participants. These results reflect the embedded nature and functionality of problem solving strategies in specific cultural environments. The findings will be discussed referring to an eco-cultural framework.

PSI: A Computational Architecture of Cognition, Motivation, and Emotion

This article describes PSI theory, which is a formalized computational architecture of human psychological processes. In contrast to other existing theories, PSI theory not only models cognitive, but also motivational and emotional processes and their interactions. The article starts with a brief overview of the theory showing the connections between its different parts. We then discuss the theorys components in greater detail. Key constructs and processes are the five basic human needs, the satisfaction of needs using the cognitive system, including perception, schemas in memory, planning, and action. Furthermore, emotions are defined and the role of emotions in cognitive and motivational processes is elaborated, referring to a specific example. The neural basis of the PSI theory is also highlighted referring to the “quad structure,” to specific brain areas, and to thinking as scanning in a neural network. Finally, some evidence for the validity of the theory is provided.

Predicted Causality in Decision Making: The Role of Culture

DECISIONS AND HOW THEY ARE MADE In the wider sense, decision making is embedded in the problem-solving process and its many stages (Davidson and Sternberg, 2003; Guss et al., 2010). In the narrow sense, decisionmaking is understood as the ability to select one of several alternatives and to act accordingly (Guss, 2004). Previous research has often focused on decision making in relatively predictable environmentswith clear goals (e.g., expected utility theory of von Neumann and Morgenstern, 1944). In recent decades the focus has been on decision making heuristics, i.e., strategies or rules of thumb, applied in uncertain situations (e.g., Tversky and Kahneman, 1974; Simon, 1979; Gigerenzer and Gaissmaier, 2011). Causality plays an important role in many cognitive processes – and causal cognition is itself influenced by culture (e.g., Norenzayan and Nisbett, 2000; Medin and Atran, 2004; Beller et al., 2009; Bender and Beller, 2011; for a controversial discussion of causal cognition, see Sperber et al., 1995). Causality is especially important during the decision-making process, because the decision maker has to predict what consequences specific decisions bring about before making a decision. Causality refers here to the predicted decision options, that a specific planned action, when executed under specific circumstances, will have a specific predicted effect. This definition of causality refers to Aristotle’s causa efficiens, i.e., an action is the origin and will cause an intended effect. Our understanding of causality is a constructivist understanding, because causality refers to the causal predictions of the actor and sometimes the actor’s predicted probability of causal consequences might differ from a normative-mathematical probability of causal consequences. Predictions by actor and mathematical probability might be quite high (“As it is raining slightly, I will use the big umbrella and therefore not get wet during my walk”), but predictions by actor might be high and mathematical probability might be quite low (“when I buy a lottery ticket and use the birthdates of my family as lucky numbers, then I will win a million dollars”). Thus one could speak of predicted causality guiding the decision-making process. We are referring here to the predictions of the actor across domains. The selection of decision alternatives is dependent on several factors such as importance, urgency, and likelihood of success (e.g., Dorner, 2008; Dorner and Guss, 2013). First, the predictions regarding decision alternatives involve the estimation of how important an alternative is. The importance is related to the human needs and the decision alternative, for example, to drink a glass of water when extremely thirsty would be more important than the decision alternative to call a friend to chat. Thus, although decision making is a cognitive process, it is related to our human needs and motivational processes. Second, predictions regarding decision alternatives involve estimations of time and resulting urgency. If I am in my office and it is 5:30 pm, and I want to buy some groceries for the weekend and I know the store closes at 6:00 pm, and I know it takes me 15 min to get to the store, then the decision alternative “check and respond to emails” is perceived as less urgent (if the time estimation to check and respond to emails is longer than a few minutes which is usually the case). Third, predictions regarding decision alternatives involve estimations of how likely it is that the predicted consequences actually happen. I know 15 min is the time I need to go to the store and I know I need an hour to check my emails and to respond to them. This predicted likelihood of success is dependent on one’s competence: first the epistemic competence, i.e., the fact knowledge and experiential knowledge of the past; and second, the general competence, i.e., an estimation of one’s ability to act successfully in the given situation (Dorner, 2008). High general competence is reflected in high predicted likelihood of success for decision alternatives (“I can do this”). In other words, one believes in oneself and that translates into one’s ability to deal with situations successfully. Judging importance, urgency, and likelihood of success for decision alternatives can occur either automatically or deliberately, i.e., unconsciously or consciously. Automatically means that based on previous experiences in similar situations, the predictions and their results are known and attributed to the current situation. Often certain cues in the current situation trigger the memory of similar situations and connected with those the successful actions in those situations which can then be applied in the current situation (e.g., recognition-primed decision making according to Klein, 2008). If the current situation is a novel situation, then deliberations about possible

Jeepneys: Values in the Streets:

Cross-cultural psychological studies mostly focus on differences between countries. This study uniquely focuses on intracultural variations of values based on descriptors of artifact data, jeepneys (public transportation vehicles), and on interviews with jeepney drivers. The sample consisted of 200 jeepneys and their drivers in Manila and Davao, northern and southern regions of the Philippines, respectively. Results indicated that Manila jeepneys featured more decorations and accessories concerned with religion, identity, and Western commercialism, while Davao jeepneys featured more political and civic themes. In interviews about their problems and wishes, Manila drivers expressed more financial and road-related problems and wishes that centered on family and happiness, whereas Davao drivers expressed more family and other people-related problems and wishes dealing with finances and work. Results are discussed focusing on inter-and intracultural variation.

A Psychological Analysis of Adolf Hitler's Decision Making as Commander in Chief: Summa Confidentia et Nimius Metus

This study is an attempt to analyze Hitlers decision making during World War II. Based on detailed historical sources, we specifically analyzed Hitlers decision-making failures and investigated the possible causes for these failures following theories on cognition, motivation, and action regulation. Failures such as underestimation of an opponent and overestimation of ones own capabilities, the displacement of responsibility for failures on scapegoats, the substitution of easily solvable problems for difficult ones, methodism in decision making, and lack of self-reflection are discussed and detailed examples are provided. These failures ultimately functioned to maintain Hitlers self-confidence. We integrate the failures into a model that explains the origins of Hitlers decision making. Although Hitlers behavior could certainly be judged as “evil,” the analysis goes further and thus can help leaders learn from these failures.

What Do You Want? How Perceivers Use Cues to Make Goal Inferences about Others.

Variables influencing inferences about a strangers goal during an unsolicited social interaction were explored. Experiment 1 developed a procedure for identifying cues. Experiments 2 and 3 assessed the relative importance of various cues (space, time, characteristics of oneself, characteristics of the stranger, and the strangers behavior) for goal judgments. Results indicated that situational context cues informed goal judgments in ways that were consistent with diagnosticity ratings and typicality ratings of those cues. Stranger characteristics and stranger behaviors affected goal judgments more than would be expected from these quantitative measures of their informativeness. Nonetheless, the results are consistent with a mental model view that assumes perceivers monitor situational cues present during interactions and that goal inferences are guided by the informativeness of these cues.

The Role of Motivation in Complex Problem Solving

Previous research on Complex Problem Solving (CPS) has primarily focused on cognitive factors as outlined below. The current paper discusses the role of motivation during CPS and argues that motivation, emotion, and cognition interact and cannot be studied in an isolated manner. Motivation is the process that determines the energization and direction of behavior (Heckhausen, 1991). Three motivation theories and their relation to CPS are examined: McClelland’s achievement motivation, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and Dörner’s needs as outlined in PSI-theory. We chose these three theories for several reasons. First, space forces us to be selective. Second, the three theories are among the most prominent motivational theories. Finally, they are need theories postulating several motivations and not just one. A thinking-aloud protocol is provided to illustrate the role of motivational and cognitive dynamics in CPS. Problems are part of all the domains of human life. The field of CPS investigates problems that are complex, dynamic, and non-transparent (Dörner, 1996). Complex problems consist of many interactively interrelated variables. Dynamic ones change and develop further over time, regardless of whether the involved people take action. And non-transparent problems have many aspects of the problem situation that are unclear or unknown to the involved people. CPS researchers focus exactly on such kinds of problems. Under a narrow perspective, CPS can be defined as thinking that aims to overcome barriers and to reach goals in situations that are complex, dynamic, and non-transparent (Frensch and Funke, 1995). Indeed, past research has shown the influential role of task properties (Berry and Broadbent, 1984; Funke, 1985) and of cognitive factors on CPS strategies and performance, such as intelligence (e.g., Süß, 2001; Stadler et al., 2015), domain-specific knowledge (e.g., Wenke et al., 2005), cognitive biases and errors (e.g., Dörner, 1996; Güss et al., 2015), or self-reflection (e.g., Donovan et al., 2015). Under a broader perspective, CPS can be defined as the study of cognitive, emotional, motivational, and social processes when people are confronted with such complex, dynamic and non-transparent problem situations (Schoppek and Putz-Osterloh, 2003; Dörner and Güss, 2011, 2013; Funke, 2012). The assumption here is that focusing solely on cognitive processes reveals an incomplete picture or an inaccurate one. To study CPS, researchers have often used computer-simulated problem scenarios also called microworlds or virtual environments or strategy games. In these situations, participants are confronted with a complex problem simulated on the computer from which they gather information, and identify solutions. These decisions are then implemented into the system and result in changes to the problem situation.

Creativity Through the Eyes of Professional Artists in Cuba, Germany, and Russia

Creativity plays an important role in the advancement of all societies around the world, yet the role of cultural influences on creativity is still unclear. Following systems theory, activity theory, and ecocultural theory, semistructured interviews with 30 renowned artists (writers, composers, and visual artists) from Cuba, Germany, and Russia were conducted to explore the complexity of the creative process and potential cultural differences. All interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using consensual qualitative research methodology. The following eight main domains resulted from the interviews: How I became an artist, What being an artist means to me, Creating as a cognitive process, Creating as an emotional process, Creating as a motivational process, Fostering factors of creativity, Hindering factors, and The role of culture in creating. Artists in the three countries similarly talked about creativity being a fluid process where ideas change, and elaborated on the role of intuition and the unconscious when creating art. Meaningful cross-cultural differences were seen among the artists of three cultural backgrounds in terms of attitudes about financial instability, in how they perceive themselves, in their art’s societal function, in the cognitive and in the emotional process of creating, and in terms of social connectedness. Results highlight (a) the complexity of the creative process going beyond cognitive factors and including motivational, emotional, and sociocultural factors, and (b) the cultural differences in the creative process. Results are beneficial for further developing a comprehensive theory of the creative process taking cultural differences into consideration.

Suicide terrorism: exploring Western perceptions of terms, context, and causes

In the scientific literature and popular media, the five terms suicide bomber, suicide terrorist, Islamic martyr, martyr or volunteer are often used interchangeably. This study investigates the mental representations related to these five different terms when the terms are presented individually and when they are embedded in the context of two scenarios. Participants were 129 undergraduate students. It was hypothesized that: (1) the positive and negative valence of associations to the five target words would differ; (2) the perception of a suicide terrorist would be influenced by target word used and by the context of the act, such as the kind of victims; (3) the reasons given for why a person becomes a suicide bomber would reflect more often those discussed in scientific research and less often those commonly presented in the media; and (4) the reasons given would differ between target words and context. Results mostly confirmed the hypotheses. Although context information seems to outweigh the connotations of the individual terms, results caution researchers and media on the need to reflect on possible consequences resulting from the use of specific terms.

Conscious versus Unconscious Processing in Dynamic Decision Making Tasks

Recent research suggests that unconscious processing is superior to conscious processing in tasks involving many decision alternatives (Dijksterhuis et al., 2006). One explanation for these findings is the limited information processing capacity of the human working memory and the almost unlimited resources of unconscious processing. The current study further investigates this topic by using more complex tasks than previously used, i.e., two complex, dynamic, and transparent tasks. Contrary to previous findings, instructions for conscious processing led to better performance in the more complex task. Results are explained referring to methodological reasons and to literature on metacognition. Besides the theoretical relevance, findings could be relevant for training programs on dynamic decision making.