C. I. Pakes

Controlled shallow single-ion implantation in silicon using an active substrate for sub-20-keV ions

We demonstrate a method for the controlled implantation of single ions into a silicon substrate with energy of sub-20‐keV. The method is based on the collection of electron-hole pairs generated in the substrate by the impact of a single ion. We have used the method to implant single 14‐keV P31 ions through nanoscale masks into silicon as a route to the fabrication of devices based on single donors in silicon.

Progress in silicon-based quantum computing

We review progress at the Australian Centre for Quantum Computer Technology towards the fabrication and demonstration of spin qubits and charge qubits based on phosphorus donor atoms embedded in intrinsic silicon. Fabrication is being pursued via two complementary pathways: a ‘top–down’ approach for near–term production of few–qubit demonstration devices and a ‘bottom–up’ approach for large–scale qubit arrays with sub–nanometre precision. The ‘top–down’ approach employs a low–energy (keV) ion beam to implant the phosphorus atoms. Single–atom control during implantation is achieved by monitoring on–chip detector electrodes, integrated within the device structure. In contrast, the ‘bottom–up’ approach uses scanning tunnelling microscope lithography and epitaxial silicon overgrowth to construct devices at an atomic scale. In both cases, surface electrodes control the qubit using voltage pulses, and dual single–electron transistors operating near the quantum limit provide fast read–out with spurious–signal rejection.

A graphene field-effect transistor as a molecule-specific probe of DNA nucleobases

Fast and reliable DNA sequencing is a long-standing target in biomedical research. Recent advances in graphene-based electrical sensors have demonstrated their unprecedented sensitivity to adsorbed molecules, which holds great promise for label-free DNA sequencing technology. To date, the proposed sequencing approaches rely on the ability of graphene electric devices to probe molecular-specific interactions with a graphene surface. Here we experimentally demonstrate the use of graphene field-effect transistors (GFETs) as probes of the presence of a layer of individual DNA nucleobases adsorbed on the graphene surface. We show that GFETs are able to measure distinct coverage-dependent conductance signatures upon adsorption of the four different DNA nucleobases; a result that can be attributed to the formation of an interface dipole field. Comparison between experimental GFET results and synchrotron-based material analysis allowed prediction of the ultimate device sensitivity, and assessment of the feasibility of single nucleobase sensing with graphene.

Surface transfer doping of hydrogen-terminated diamond by C60F48: Energy level scheme and doping efficiency

Surface sensitive C1s core level photoelectron spectroscopy was used to examine the electronic properties of C(60)F(48) molecules on the C(100):H surface. An upward band bending of 0.74 eV in response to surface transfer doping by fluorofullerene molecules is measured. Two distinct molecular charge states of C(60)F(48) are identified and their relative concentration determined as a function of coverage. One corresponds to ionized molecules that participate in surface charge transfer and the other to neutral molecules that do not. The position of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital of neutral C(60)F(48) which is the relevant acceptor level for transfer doping lies initially 0.6 eV below the valence band maximum and shifts upwards in the course of transfer doping by up to 0.43 eV due to a doping induced surface dipole. This upward shift in conjunction with the band bending determines the occupation of the acceptor level and limits the ultimately achievable hole concentration with C(60)F(48) as a surface acceptor to values close to 10(13) cm(-2) as reported in the literature.

Work function and electron affinity of the fluorine-terminated (100) diamond surface

The work function and electron affinity of fluorine-terminated (100) diamond surfaces prepared by exposure to dissociated XeF2 have been determined using synchrotron-based photoemission. After vacuum annealing to 350 °C a clean, monofluoride terminated C(100):F surface was obtained for which an electron affinity of 2.56 eV was measured. This is the highest electron affinity reported for any diamond surface termination so far, and it exceeds the value predicted by recent density functional theory calculations by 0.43 eV. The work function of 7.24 eV measured for the same surface places the Fermi energy of 0.79 eV above the valence band maximum.

Tuning the charge carriers in epitaxial graphene on SiC(0001) from electron to hole via molecular doping with C60F48

We demonstrate that the intrinsic electron doping of monolayer epitaxial graphene on SiC(0001) can be tuned in a controlled fashion to holes via molecular doping with the fluorinated fullerene C60F48. In situ angle-resolved photoemission is used to measure an upward shift of (0.6 ± 0.05) eV in the Dirac point from −0.43 eV to +0.17 eV relative to the Fermi level. The carrier density is observed to change from n ∼ (1 × 1013 ± 0.1 × 1013) cm−2 to p ∼ (2 × 1012 ± 1 × 1012) cm−2. We introduce a doping model employing Fermi-Dirac statistics which explicitly takes temperature and the highly correlated nature of molecular orbitals into account. The model describes the observed doping behaviour in our experiment and readily explains why net p-type doping was not achieved in a previous study [Coletti et al., Phys. Rev. B 81, 8 (2010)] which used tetrafluorotetra-cyanoquinodimethane (F4-TCNQ).

Ion-beam-induced-charge characterisation of particle detectors

Abstract Ion-beam-induced-charge collection (IBIC) in a nuclear microprobe has been used to characterise detectors for the measurement of particles over a median energy range (100 keV–1 MeV). Three standard detector devices have been studied: a PIPS detector with a buried (ion-implanted) junction structure, a Schottky barrier junction device and a PN-junction photodiode. A 2.0 MeV focussed helium ion beam was used to probe the active area of each device with a spatial resolution ∼1–2 μm, to quantify the thickness of the dead layer, the charge collection response and the reduction in charge collection efficiency induced by ion-beam damage.

Numerical Study of Hydrogenic Effective Mass Theory for an impurity P donor in Si in the presence of an electric field and interfaces

In this paper we examine the effects of varying several experimental parameters in the Kane quantum computer architecture: A-gate voltage, the qubit depth below the silicon oxide barrier, and the back gate depth to explore how these variables affect the electron density of the donor electron. In particular, we calculate the resonance frequency of the donor nuclei as a function of these parameters. To do this we calculated the donor electron wave function variationally using an effective-mass Hamiltonian approach, using a basis of deformed hydrogenic orbitals. This approach was then extended to include the electric-field Hamiltonian and the silicon host geometry. We found that the phosphorous donor electron wave function was very sensitive to all the experimental variables studied in our work, and thus to optimize the operation of these devices it is necessary to control all parameters varied in this paper.

Surface band bending and electron affinity as a function of hole accumulation density in surface conducting diamond

Simultaneous measurements of work function (ϕ) and C 1s core level shift were employed to determine the change in electron affinity (χ) and band bending as a function of hole sheet density on H-terminated diamond for atmospheric and fullerene (C60F48) induced surface conductivity. Contrary to earlier investigations, it is shown that changes in work function do not reflect variations in the position of the surface Fermi level in response to surface transfer doping. Instead, with a transition from −0.96 to −0.33 eV, χ accounts for a significant amount of the change in ϕ for hole densities between 5×108 and 4×1013 cm−2.

Conducting Ni nanoparticles in an ion-modified polymer

Conductive-atomic force microscopy has been used to perform nanoscale current imaging of Ni-ion-implanted polythylene terephthlate films. A reduction in bulk sheet resistivity, as the Ni dose is increased, is found to be accompanied by an evolution in local conductivity from a spatially homogeneous insulator to an interconnected network of conducting Ni crystallites. The crystallites have a mean dimension of 12.3nm, confirmed by x-ray-diffraction analysis.