C. K. Stahle

A High Spectral Resolution Observation of the Soft X-Ray Diffuse Background with Thermal Detectors

A high spectral resolution observation of the diffuse X-ray background in the 60–1000 eV energy range has been made using an array of 36 1 mm 2 microcalorimeters flown on a sounding rocket. Detector energy resolution ranged from 5 to 12 eV FWHM, and a composite spectrum of � 1 sr of the background centered at l ¼ 90 � , b ¼þ 60 � was obtained with a net resolution of � 9 eV. The target area includes bright 1 keV regions but avoids Loop I and the North Polar Spur. Lines of C vi ,O vii, and O viii are clearly detected with intensities of 5:4 � 2:3, 4:8 � 0:8, and 1:6 � 0:4 photons cm � 2 s � 1 sr � 1 , respectively. The oxygen lines alone account for a majority of the diffuse background observed in the ROSAT R4 band that is not due to resolved extragalactic discrete sources. We also have a positive detection of the Fe-M line complex near 70 eV at an intensity consistent with previous upper limits that indicate substantial gas-phase depletion of iron. We include a detailed description of the instrument and its detectors. Subject headings: instrumentation: detectors — instrumentation: spectrographs — intergalactic medium — space vehicles: instruments — X-rays: diffuse background — X-rays: ISM

Signal processing for microcalorimeters

Most of the power in the signals from microcalorimeters occurs at relatively low frequencies. At these frequencies, typical amplifiers will have significant amounts of 1/f noise. Our laboratory systems can also suffer from pickup at several harmonics of the AC power line, and from microphonic pickup at frequencies that vary with the configuration of the apparatus. We have developed some optimal signal processing techniques in order to construct the best possible estimates of our pulse heights in the presence of these non-ideal effects. In addition to a discussion of our laboratory systems, we present our plans for providing this kind of signal processing in flight experiments.

A sounding rocket payload for X-ray astronomy employing high-resolution microcalorimeters

Abstract We have completed a sounding rocket payload that will use a 36 element array of microcalorimeters to obtain a high-resolution spectrum of the diffuse X-ray background between 0.1 and 1 keV. This experiment uses only mechanical collimation of the incoming X-rays, but the cryostat and detector assembly have been designed to be placed at the focus of a conical foil imaging mirror which will be employed on subsequent flights to do spatially resolved spectroscopy of supernova remnants and other extended objects. The detector system is a monolithic array of silicon calorimeters with ion-implanted thermometers and HgTe X-ray absorbers. The 1 mm 2 pixels achieve a resolution of about 8 eV FWHM operating at 60 mK.

ASTRO-E high-resolution x-ray spectrometer

The Astro-E High Resolution X-ray Spectrometer (XRS) was developed jointly by the NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and the Institute of Space and Astronomical Science in Japan. The instrument is based on a new approach to spectroscopy, the x-ray microcalorimeter. This device senses the energies of individual x-ray photons as heat with extreme precision. A 32 channel array of microcalorimeters is being employed, each with an energy resolution of about 12 eV at 6 keV. This will provide spectral resolving power 10 times higher than any other non-dispersive x-ray spectrometer. The instrument incorporates a three stage cooling system capable of operating the array at 60 mK for about two years in orbit. The array sits at the focus of a grazing incidence conical mirror. The quantum efficiency of the microcalorimeters and the reflectivity of the x-ray mirror system combine to give high throughput over the 0.3- 12 keV energy band. This new capability will enable the study of a wide range of high-energy astrophysical sources with unprecedented spectral sensitivity. This paper presents the basic design requirements and implementation of the XRS, and also describes the instrument parameters and performance.

Laboratory astrophysics using a spare XRS microcalorimeter

The XRS instrument on Astro-E is a fully self-contained microcalorimeter x-ray instrument capable of acquiring, optimally filtering, and characterizing events for 32 independent pixels. We have recently integrated a full engineering model XRS detector system into a laboratory cryostat for use on the electron beam ion trap (EBIT) at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The detector system contains a microcalorimeter array with 32 instrumented pixels heat sunk to 60 mK using an adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator. The instrument has a composite resolution of 8 eV at 1 keV and 11 eV at 6 keV with a minimum of 98% quantum efficiency and a total collecting area of 13 mm2. This will allow high spectral resolution, broadband observations of plasmas with known ionization states that are produced in the EBIT experiment. Unique to our instrument are exceptionally well characterized 1000 Angstrom thick aluminum on polyimide infrared blocking filters. The detailed transmission function including the edge fine structure of these filters has been measured in our laboratory using a variable spaced grating spectrometer. This will allow the instrument to perform the first broadband absolute flux measurements with the EBIT instrument. The instrument performance as well as the results of preliminary measurements of Fe K and L shell at fixed electron energy, Fe emission with Maxwellian electron distributions, and phase resolved spectroscopy of ionizing plasmas will be discussed.

Design and Performance of the Astro-E/XRS Signal Processing System

We describe the signal processing system of the Astro-E XRS instrument. The Calorimeter Analog Processor provides bias and power for the detectors and amplifies the detector signals by a factor of 20,000. The calorimeter digital processor performs the digital processing of the calorimeter signals, detecting x-ray and risetime determination. We also discuss performance, including the three event grades, anticoincidence detection, counting rate dependence, and noise rejection.

Laboratory Measurements of the Relative Intensity of the 3s → 2p and 3d → 2p Transitions in Fe XVII

The intensity ratios of the 3s → 2p and 3d → 2p lines in Fe XVII were measured on the Livermore electron beam ion trap employing a complementary set of spectrometers, including a high-resolution crystal spectrometer and the Goddard 32 pixel calorimeter. The resulting laboratory data are in agreement with satellite measurements of the Sun and astrophysical sources in collisional equilibrium such as Capella, Procyon, and NGC 4636. The results disagree with earlier laboratory measurements and assertions that processes not accounted for in laboratory measurements must play a role in the formation of the Fe XVII spectra in solar and astrophysical plasmas.

Design and fabrication of superconducting transition edge X-ray calorimeters

Abstract We report on progress made so far at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center towards the development of arrays of X-ray microcalorimeters as candidates for the high-resolution X-ray spectrometer on the Constellation-X mission. In the design concept presently under consideration, the microcalorimeter consists of (i) a Bi/Cu multilayer absorber for stopping and thermalizing the incident X-rays, (ii) an e-beam evaporated Mo/Au proximity bilayer with sputtered Nb leads for sensing the resultant temperature rise, and (iii) a silicon nitride membrane to provide a weak thermal link to the sink temperature so that the calorimeter can return to its equilibrium temperature. Fabrication details and preliminary results are reported.

Microcalorimeter arrays for high resolution soft X-ray spectroscopy

Abstract We have produced monolithic silicon detector arrays comprising 36 one-square-millimeter microcalorimeter pixels capable of achieving a resolution of ∼8 eV FWHM for soft X-rays. Each silicon pixel is suspended by silicon beams that provide a weak link to a ∼60 mK heat sink. The thermometer element of each pixel is an ion-implanted thermistor. X-ray thermalization is achieved in a 1 μm absorbing layer of MOCVD-grown HgTe. The HgTe is grown on thin Si substrates that are individually attached to the array elements using epoxy. We have determined that the value of the conductance of the link between absorber and thermometer critically affects device performance. We have performed preliminary investigations using arrays with small suspended absorber isolators etched in the center of each pixel. When an absorber is attached to the center of an absorber isolator, the beams supporting that isolator provide the thermal link to the rest of the pixel.

Fabrication of superconducting bilayer transition edge thermometers and their application for spaceborne X-ray microcalorimetry

The transition between normal conduction and superconductivity in superconducting materials can be exploited as a highly sensitive thermometer. Transition temperatures can be tailored through the selection of materials, their component cases of more than one material. Two bilayer configurations, Ag/Al and Au/Mo, are examined, including details of preparation, testing, and encountered difficulties. Proposed designs for spaceflight detector applications are discussed.