C. Scott Shafer

Recreational Specialization: A Critical Look at the Construct

Recreational specialization has generally been treated by leisure researchers as a measure of intensity of involvement and has been used to explore variation among activity participants in terms of their preferences, motivations, attitudes, and the like. A close look at Bryans (1977, 1979) original writings, however, reveals that he regarded specialization foremost as a developmental process that entails a progression in behavior, attitudes, and preferences. In this paper, we examine how researchers might go about examining recreational specialization as a developmental process. We envisage specialization as a progression in behaviors, skills, and commitment. We also describe progression in terms of stages of involvement, career changes, and turning points. Findings from various studies, however, suggest that progression is not a typical career path pursued by recreation participants. Indeed, progression may well be the least common trajectory among recreation participants. To better understand the dynamics of progression, we examine a variety of individual and socio-cultural factors and events that are likely to facilitate or impede peoples movement along the specialization continuum over time. We conclude the paper with suggestions for future research.

A TALE OF THREE GREENWAY TRAILS: USER PERCEPTIONS RELATED TO QUALITY OF LIFE

Urban sprawl and renewed concern for the environment have helped create new policies and initiatives designed to enhance community quality of life. Among these are transportation enhancements mandated in ISTEA and TEA21. Funding through transportation enhancements has helped to spur the designation and development of greenway trails with the intent of fostering alternative transportation and generally making cities more livable. This paper presents research conducted on three greenway trails in Texas. The research was based on the human ecosystem concept and was intended to determine if and how such greenway facilities were contributing to quality of life and how people might perceive such contributions based on the way they used the trail (e.g. for transportation or recreation). Results indicated that most people used greenway trails for recreation but that trails differed in user types and activities based on location and policy. Users felt that these urban greenway trails were contributing most to community quality of life through resident health/fitness, the natural areas they provide, better land use and resident pride. They felt that they contributed least to diversifying industry, business development and access to shopping areas or public transportation. Those who used trails for transportation scored trails as contributing more toward reducing pollution, reducing transportation costs and providing better access to work than did those who used trails only for recreation. Implications for understanding use and users in the designation, design and development of urban greenway trails are discussed.

Operationalizing sustainability in regional tourism planning: an application of the limits of acceptable change framework.

Abstract Sustainability has been a useful concept but one that has proven difficult to operationalize. The limits of acceptable change (LAC) planning system was used as a basis for research to exemplify a model that may be useful in applying the sustainability concept in regional tourism planning. A county on the coast of Texas, USA was used to examine regional attitudes toward tourism development and the perceived change that tourism might create. Respondent attitudes from three communities were compared. Results indicated that communities differed in the way they felt about tourism. These differences provided some justification for tourism development zones (TDZs) that can help separate development and activity types related to tourism. Communities also differed in perceived change that might occur due to tourism suggesting that different conditions and indicators might be needed depending on the TDZ of concern. Implications for application of the LAC planning system are discussed.

Exploring the Crowding–Satisfaction Relationship in Recreational Boating

Along with the growing boating population and the number of boats in use on limited inland waterways, boater expectations of setting density, safety perceptions, and the associated impacts on their experience (e.g., satisfaction) are becoming increasingly important. The primary purpose of this article was to explore a recreational boating crowding–satisfaction model derived from previous work using safety and enjoyment as mediating variables. We also tested our crowding–satisfaction model among day and overnight users. Our analysis revealed no significant difference between day and overnight users for any of the relationships tested in our model. Our final model indicated as respondents’ expectations for seeing people increased along with their feelings of being crowded, they were more inclined to consider the conditions on the lake as being unsafe. They were also more inclined to indicate that the number of people they had seen on the lake detracted from their boating experience. Respondents’ satisfaction was tied to their perceptions of crowding. Mediating variables illustrated that the relationship was conditioned by perceptions of safety and enjoyment. Analysis of the indirect effect observed in our study illustrate that when the number of people seen on the lake exceed respondents’ expectations, their perceptions of safety and enjoyment both decline, resulting in lower satisfaction. These findings have implications for managing recreational boating use on inland lake systems. Given the role played by expectations in our model, efforts to communicate with boaters about conditions on these waterways is important for helping them plan their boating experience and avoid situations they consider unsafe or unsatisfactory.

Managing Endangered Species within the Use/Preservation Paradox: Understanding and Defining Harassment of the West Indian Manatee (Trichechus manatus)

As the popularity of interacting with marine mammals in the wild increases, managers face the challenge of providing use while simultaneously protecting the target species. Because the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus) is protected from harassment by formal legislation, there is some concern regarding manatee encounters in Crystal River, Florida, USA, where tourists swim with the endangered animals. This study examined how the construct of harassment is defined and specifically applied to manatee encounters. Three major themes emerged: stakeholders impose their own values when interpreting formal definitions of harassment; a definition of harassment is difficult to apply in the field; and enforcement efforts are confounded by these and other variables in the setting. Thus, the issue of harassment is not a technical one but largely an issue of social value. Management implications are discussed and a management framework is recommended to find common ground and establish best practices.

Aesthetic Responses to Urban Greenway Trail Environments

Abstract The ways people perceive greenway trails in urban environments are not well studied. Trail layout and aspects of maintenance and design of trails in urban areas would benefit from better knowledge of how potential users perceive these places and what might encourage or discourage their use. The purpose of this study was to examine the relative influence of aesthetic response dimensions on the likeability of greenway trail scenes in an urban environment. A web-based ‘virtual tour’ was used to elicit responses to scenes of urban greenway environments in downtown Houston and Austin, Texas, USA. The 211 subjects who participated in the study were selected from an undergraduate student population. Participants viewed the scenes and responded to the survey in a controlled computer laboratory. Perceptions of the greenways supported the aesthetic dimensions that Nasar has suggested for broader urban environments. Our analysis resulted in the identification of five dimensions of aesthetic response to the greenway scenes that were interpreted as: maintenance, distinctiveness, naturalness, pleasantness and arousal. These represented both cognitive and affective responses to the environment and all five dimensions were significant positive predictors of the likeability of greenway scenes. The dimension of pleasantness had the greatest influence on likeability and maintenance had the least. The implications of the findings for urban design related to greenway trails and future research are discussed.

Examining Relationships Among Perceptions of Self, Episode-Specific Evaluations, and Overall Satisfaction with a Leisure Activity

Abstract Many researchers have investigated leisure experience as a process that includes interactions with others and the environment. Interactions during leisure are known to influence the experience. Based on this tradition, the purpose of this study was to investigate how emotions might relate to interactions that an individual has during leisure experience and to examine the relationships among emotions, episode-specific evaluations, and overall satisfaction. A research model was suggested based on Affect Control Theory, the confirmation/disconfirmation paradigm, Mehrabian and Russells 1974 approach-avoidance concept, and the sub-domain dependency theory of leisure satisfaction. Findings from analyses of experiences suggested that linkages existed among confirmation of self-identity (a goal), resulting emotions, episode-specific evaluations, and finally to overall satisfaction with a leisure activity.

User perceptions about marine wilderness on Australia's Great Barrier Reef

Wilderness traditionally has been a terrestrial resource designation. This study examined user perceptions related to the existence of wilderness in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP), and raises questions about the efficacy of the GIS based Australian National Wilderness Inventory (ANWI) as a method of inventorying and analyzing wilderness settings in the absence of such perceptions. Three hundred eighty‐three users of the GBRMP were surveyed. Results indicated that over 80% of the respondents believed that wilderness existed in the park, and that it existed both above and below the surface of the water. Characteristics of wilderness related to human presence, natural features, and remoteness were found to be important to marine wilderness. Responses revealed that remoteness (physical distance) from human development may warrant less weight in the designation of marine wilderness than implied as necessary by the ANWI. We discuss implications for selecting areas as wilderness and using the wildern...

Examining Residents’ Proximity, Recreational Use, and Perceptions Regarding Proposed Aquaculture Development

Competing interests related to marine resources have the potential to create conflict in the coastal zone. In many parts of the world marine farms exist in close proximity to areas that support recreation and tourism. The purpose of this study was to examine residents’ perceptions of proposed marine farm development related to their proximity to, and recreational use of, a coastal area in New Zealand. Residents from two areas were surveyed about their recreational use of the region and about perceptions related to marine farm development. Results indicated that those living closest to proposed marine farms used the area more often and in different ways, were most sensitive to marine farm development, and were less positive in their evaluations of marine farms, despite agreeing that marine farms can have positive economic consequences for nearby communities. Implications for using stakeholder input for the planning and management of marine farms are discussed.

Dynamics of Progression in Mountain Bike Racing

A major tenet of the recreation specialization framework is that people progress to higher stages of involvement over time. Results from recent studies suggest that involvement may actually be marked by stability or decline. Little is known about the extent to which people progress in outdoor activities where objective standards of performance exist. The purpose of this study was to examine the antecedents of objective and subjective progression among competitive mountain bike racers. Specialization dimensions of behavior, skill, and commitment differentiated among three classes of participants: Category 1, 2, and 3 racers. Specialization dimensions were also used to predict participants’ subjective progression in participation over the past five years and next five years. Relationships between specialization dimensions and subjective measures of progression differed with endurance skill and personal commitment being most significant. This study provides insight into the dynamics of progression, particularly in outdoor activities where objective performance standards exist.