C. Ungureanu

Light interactions with gold nanorods and cells: implications for photothermal nanotherapeutics

Gold nanorods (AuNR) can be tailored to possess an intense and narrow longitudinal plasmon (LP) absorption peak in the far-red to near-infrared wavelength region, where tissue is relatively transparent to light. This makes AuNRs excellent candidates as contrast agents for photoacoustic imaging, and as photothermal therapeutic agents. The favorable optical properties of AuNR which depend on the physical parameters of shape, size and plasmonic coupling effects, are required to be stable during use. We investigate the changes that are likely to occur in these physical parameters in the setting of photothermal therapeutics, and the influence that these changes have on the optical properties and the capacity to achieve target cell death. To this end we study 3 sets of interactions: pulsed light with AuNR, AuNR with cells, and pulsed light with cells incubated with AuNR. In the first situation we ascertain the threshold value of fluence required for photothermal melting or reshaping of AuNR to shorter AuNR or nanospheres, which results in drastic changes in optical properties. In the second situation when cells are exposed to antibody-conjugated AuNR, we observe using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) that the particles are closely packed and clustered inside vesicles in the cells. Using dark-field microscopy we show that plasmonic interactions between AuNRs in this situation causes blue-shifting of the LP absorption peak. As a consequence, no direct lethal damage to cells can be inflicted by laser irradiation at the LP peak. On the other hand, using irradiation at the transverse peak (TP) wavelength in the green, at comparative fluences, extensive cell death can be achieved. We attribute this behavior on the one hand to the photoreshaping of AuNR into spheres and on the other hand to clustering of AuNR inside cells. Both effects create sufficiently high optical absorption at 532 nm, which otherwise would have been present at the LP peak. We discuss implications of these finding on the application of these particles in biomedicine.

Synthesis and bioconjugation of gold nanoparticles as potential molecular probes for light-based imaging techniques

We have synthesized and characterized gold nanoparticles (spheres and rods) with optical extinction bands within the “optical imaging window.” The intense plasmon resonant driven absorption and scattering peaks of these nanoparticles make them suitable as contrast agents for optical imaging techniques. Further, we have conjugated these gold nanoparticles to a mouse monoclonal antibody specific to HER2 overexpressing SKBR3 breast carcinoma cells. The bioconjugation protocol uses noncovalent modes of binding based on a combination of electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions of the antibody and the gold surface. We discuss various aspects of the synthesis and bioconjugation protocols and the characterization results of the functionalized nanoparticles. Some proposed applications of these potential molecular probes in the field of biomedical imaging are also discussed.

Gold nanorods as molecular contrast agents in photoacoustic imaging: the promises and the caveats

Rod-shaped gold nanoparticles exhibit intense and narrow absorption peaks for light in the far-red and near-infrared wavelength regions, owing to the excitation of longitudinal plasmons. Light absorption is followed predominantly by non radiative de-excitation, and the released heat and subsequent temperature rise cause strong photoacoustic (optoacoustic) signals to be produced. This feature combined with the relative inertness of gold, and its favorable surface chemistry, which permits affinity biomolecule coupling, has seen gold nanorods (AuNR) attracting much attention as contrast agents and molecular probes for photoacoustic imaging. In this article we provide an short overview of the current status of the use of AuNR in molecular imaging using photoacoustics. We further examine the state of the art in various chemical, physical and biochemical phenomena that have implications for the future photoacoustic applications of these particles. We cover the route through fine-tuning of AuNR synthetic procedures, toxicity reduction by appropriate coatings, in vitro cellular interactions of AuNRs, attachment of targeting antibodies, in vivo fate of the particles and the effects of certain light interactions with the AuNR.

Discrete dipole approximation simulations of gold nanorod optical properties: Choice of input parameters and comparison with experiment

Gold nanorods have interesting optical properties due to surface plasmon resonance effects. A variety of biomedical applications of these particles have been envisaged and feasibilities demonstrated in imaging, sensing, and therapy based on the interactions of light with these particles. In order to correctly interpret experimental data and tailor the nanorods and their environments for optimal use in these applications, simulations of the optical properties of the particles under various conditions are essential. Of various numerical methods available, the discrete dipole approximation (DDA) approach implemented in the publicly available DDSCAT code is a powerful method that had proved popular for studying gold nanorods. However, there is as yet no universal agreement on the shape used to represent the nanorods and on the dielectric function of gold required for the simulations. We systematically study the influence of these parameters on simulated results. We find large variations in the position of plasmon resonance peaks, their amplitudes, and shapes of the spectra depending on the choice of the parameters. We discuss these in the light of experimental optical extinction spectra of gold nanorods synthesized in our laboratory. We show that much care should be taken and prudence applied before DDA results be used to interpret experimental data and to help characterize nanoparticles synthesized.

Differential Pathlength Spectroscopy for the Quantitation of Optical Properties of Gold Nanoparticles

An accurate estimation of optical absorption coefficient (microabs) and scattering coefficient (microsca) is important in characterizing nanoparticles for identifying or optimizing applications such as photothermal therapy and photoacoustic imaging. In this exciting period where several fascinating methods have been unveiled for the synthesis of various nanoparticles, the field is still lacking in the availability of efficient characterization methods. We introduce an accurate and simple methodology to optically characterize nanoparticles which could fill the gap. This is based on differential pathlength spectroscopy (DPS), a dual optical fiber approach, originally developed to detect cancer endoscopically by measuring the optical properties of tissue in small interrogation volumes. We expand its use to nanoparticles in a method that allows us to resolve the effects of microabs and microsca in the extinction coefficient of low concentration samples. We outline the measurement protocol using the DPS system and describe the analysis of the data taking additional inputs from electron microscopy and discrete dipole approximation (DDA) simulations. The DPS signal from the sample is first translated into the backscattering coefficient using a calibration constant. Further, the backscattering coefficient is converted via the simulated scattering phase function into the scattering coefficient. With this knowledge and extinction coefficient measured using a conventional photospectrometer, the absorption coefficient is calculated. We prove the validity of the method using spherical and rod-shaped gold nanoparticles, comparing the results with outputs from DDA simulations. We also briefly touch upon the dilemma of the choice of the appropriate dielectric function for gold at the nanoscale.

Acoustic signals from gold nanoparticles irradiated with pulsed lasers

Photoacoustic imaging is a new imaging technique, which enables imaging of living tissue with high resolution. The technique analyses ultrasound pulses generated when absorbing structures in tissue are irradiated with pulsed light. Due to the phenomenon of plasmon resonance gold nanoparticles possess high optical absorption coefficients which makes them potential contrast agents in photoacoustics. Further, the heat generated around these particles when irradiated with pulsed light can lead to nonlinear effects including bubble formation. The acoustic signals produced by gold nanoparticles in the linear thermoelastic and non‐linear regimes are expected to have specific acoustic signatures. In this study, we investigate the acoustic signals generated by two sets of gold spheres having 25 nm and 60 nm diameter irradiated by laser pulses with increasing incident fluence rates. We identify and discuss the differences in acoustic signals belonging to the thermoelastic expansion regime and the non‐linear regime....

Gold nanorods: contrast agents for photoacoustic imaging?

Gold nanorods are seen as possible contrast agents for photoacoustic imaging since they have strong absorption peaks at near-infrared wavelengths. Also they are easy to conjugate with various proteins. If these particles can be conjugated with cancer affinity proteins then these particles can accumulate specifically at a tumor site. By detecting the presence of accumulation of gold nanorods inside the tissue the indirect detection of tumor can be realized. When these particles are irradiated with light pulses of appropriate temporal properties and energy the temperature around these particles can be high enough to induce apoptosis or necrosis in the surrounding cells. In order to use these particles at their full potential we must determine precisely their optical properties. We simulated the optical properties of gold nanorods synthesized by us using the DDSCAT code. The simulated spectra agree qualitatively with the spectra determined using spectrometry and also determined using photoacoustic spectroscopy. Further the values of molar extinction coefficient derived from the simulations were similar to the data measured experimentally by other groups. These results validated qualitatively the model used in the simulations. During simulations we found that the choice of the dielectric function used in simulations plays an important role in the results.

Discriminating between absorption and scattering coefficients in optical characterisation measurements on gold nanoparticle based photoacoustic contrast agents

Plasmon resonant nanoparticles such as gold nanoshells and gold nanorods can be tuned to possess sharp interaction peaks in the near-infrared wavelength regions. These have great importance as contrast agents in photoacoustic imaging and as photothermal agents for therapeutic applications due to their high absorptions. While the optical properties of the particles are can be described using Mie theory and/or numerical methods such as the Discrete Dipole Approximation, discriminating between their optical absorption and scattering in experiments is not easy. In this paper we discuss for the first time a novel method based on a two-fiber spectrometer that allows measurement of the scattering and absorption coefficients of gold nanoparticles in solution. This technique, called Differential Path length Spectroscopy, has been developed earlier for measurement in highly diffusive media such as tissue. We demonstrate this concept on gold nanospheres and nanoshells of various sizes. We believe that this will develop into a fast and reliable method able to work on small samples (<1 ml) of nanoparticles to obtain scattering and absorbing spectra.