Carl Grundy-Warr

Geographies of Displacement: The Karenni and The Shan Across The Myanmar‐Thailand Border

First, central to our analysis is the argument that human movement within and across borders fundamentally challenges the view of geopolitics based upon fixed territorial states, inter-state relations, national identities and citizenship; indeed the whole idea of “national geographic”. Using the examples of the Karen and Shan peoples, we explore the processes and patterns of forced relocation, displacement and migration in the border regions of Myanmar and Thailand. Our main concern is with forced displacement as a result of political and ethnic conflict; specifically, how the Burmese military regime’s desire for “national unity” within Myanmar’s “national space” has influenced the militarily inspired displacements of hundreds of thousands of villagers and civilians within the border zones inhabited mostly by so-called “national minorities”. We examine the particular problems of the so-called “internally displaced persons” within “national” boundaries compared with the “refugees” and “undocumented migrants” who make it across “international” space into Thailand. We illustrate the ways displaced people are represented by state agencies and the media as “threats” and “transgressors”. We consider some of the “long term” aspects of the displacement problem along the Myanmar-Thai border and the vital contribution geographers can make to the study of displacement.

The ecology of the Bithynia first intermediate hosts of Opisthorchis viverrini.

Opisthorchiasis, together with its associated cholangiocarcinoma, is one of the most important human parasitic diseases on continental Southeast Asia. A great deal of epidemiological data from humans is available on this disease, particularly from the northeast of Thailand, however, only limited information is available on those aspects of the life cycle relating to its Bithynia (Gastropoda) and cyprinid fish intermediate hosts. Here we review the information which is available on the Bithynia hosts of Opisthorchis viverrini. Only one major ecological study has been carried out at one site on a single species of Bithynia. We show not only that detailed ecological studies are required to clarify the epidemiology of opisthorchiasis, but also that the taxonomic status of the Bithynia species transmitting O. viverrini requires clarification.

Dams and disease triggers on the lower Mekong river.

Ongoing and proposed construction of several large hydropower dams along the mainstream Mekong River and various tributaries has created a number of unanswered environmental and societal questions for governments and communities in Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam [1]–[3]. Most concern over the controversial dam-building projects focuses on the extent to which river health and food security will be affected negatively. Foremost, the 85 or more proposed dams threaten to reduce the diversity and abundance of freshwater fish, the major animal protein source for many of the 67 million inhabitants of the Mekong River basin [4]–[7].

Fighting Liverflukes with Food Safety Education

MORE THAN 45 MILLION PEOPLE IN ASIA ARE infected with liverfl ukes (trematodes), which cause diseases such as chlonorchiasis and opisthorchiasis (1–3). Opisthorchis viverrini, the parasite that causes opisthorchiasis, is a recognized type one carcinogen that leads to a fatal cancer of the bile duct (1). Opisthorchiasis, which affects at least 10 million people in the Thailand and Laos alone (1), is not considered one of the major neglected tropical diseases in the Southeast Asia region by the World Health Organization (4). Past efforts to control this disease have lacked suffi cient funding and institutional backing typically provided to combat well-known maladies such as leprosy, lymphatic filariasis, visceral leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, and onchocerciasis. Thus, the threat of this condition and the resultant cancer lingers in the region. More important, the threat extends globally through the export of contaminated fi sh products and through infected tourists and overseas workers residing or visiting regions where intermediate hosts exist (5–7). Throughout Asia, up to 750 million people are at risk by infection from fi sh-borne liverfl ukes (1, 3). Food safety education may be the most expedient way to control the spread of infections because prevalence is inherently linked to human behavior. Opisthorchiasis persists today largely because raw fi sh consumption is linked to cultural identity in Southeast Asia. Every day millions of people eat infected fi sh that have not been cooked properly. The lack of hygienic toilet facilities completes the epidemiological cycle by facilitating the return of O. viverrini eggs to waterways, where they are fi rst consumed by Bithynia snails and later passed to cyprinid fi sh species. Medical interventions have had only limited success in treating O. viverrini. Praziquantel, for example, kills the adult worms in the human host, but it does not prevent reinfection (8). It may also compromise the immune system or cause liver complications when taken repeatedly after reinfection (9, 10). Rapid land-cover and land-use modifi cations now taking place in the region, coupled with uncertainties regarding future climate Make a Bid for Bird Biodiversity

Potential malaria reemergence, northeastern Thailand.

To the Editor: The emergence and reemergence of infectious diseases are major problems for healthcare systems worldwide. Unfortunately, because accurate prediction of the occurrence of such diseases is difficult, if not impossible, surveillance and control can be carried out only after the outbreak has occurred. Predicting the likelihood of a disease outbreak should make it possible to start surveillance programs before outbreaks occur and to initiate control programs before the population has become seriously affected. We used data on changes in land use patterns to predict the likelihood of malaria reemergence in northeastern Thailand. Because natural rubber is of major economic importance and cannot be replaced by synthetic alternatives, the demand for and production of this commodity has consistently increased (1). This situation has led to changes in agricultural practices in various countries in Southeast Asia; rubber production has increased in Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam (1,2). Northeastern Thailand (Isaan) is a relatively poor area, and most rubber plantations belong to smallholders and provide them with a large source of income (3). In 1993, ≈284 km2 of northeastern Thailand were covered by rubber plantations; this area increased to 422 km2 in 1998 and to 948 km2 by 2003 (3). Since then, planting has increased exponentially so that, by 2006, the total area planted with rubber was >2,463 km2; new plantings expanded another ≈1,345 km2 from 2004 to 2006 and increased to a total of 5,029 km2 in 2007 (3). The plants mature ≈6 years after planting; at that stage, the trees can reach 10–12 m in height, although the growth rate depends on the physical and biotic environment (4). Deforestation in northeastern Thailand early in the last century led to an extreme reduction in the incidence of malaria (5) because the main vector mosquito in this area, Anopheles dirus sensu stricto, is forest dwelling and requires a shaded environment for its survival and reproduction (6). Currently, the northeastern part of the country is relatively free of autochthonous malaria cases except for 3 provinces that border Cambodia and Laos (5), Srisaket, Ubon Ratchathani, and Surin. In Srisaket and Ubon Ratchathani, 25% and 31%, respectively, of malaria cases are imported, particularly from Cambodia (7). Mosquitoes are sensitive to changes in environmental conditions, such as shade, temperature, and humidity. These conditions are often influenced by land use change, such as conversion of rice paddies to rubber plantations (8). In addition to providing economic benefits for the population, rubber plantations also provide suitable habitats for A. dirus s.s., perhaps even better habitats than those found in the original rain forest; new plantations lead to increased mosquito density and disease incidence (8). Thus, planting large tracts of rubber potentially increases the likelihood of the reemergence of malaria in northeastern Thailand, although a malaria vector such as A. dirus s.s. could return without reemergence of the disease (9). Should malaria return, the greatly reduced contact between the local Isaan population and Plasmodium spp. over the past ≈50 years suggests that malaria would enter a highly susceptible population, potentially leading to major health problems at the individual and regional levels. This possibility is of particular concern because several strains of Plasmodium in Thailand and surrounding countries are multidrug resistant, which leads to treatment difficulties (5). Each land use change creates different microclimatic conditions, which directly and indirectly affect the occurrence and distribution of malaria (10). Whether malaria will return as a major health threat likely depends on the size and fragmentation of the individual plantation areas. The required size of a plantation for the survival of the vector population is unclear, but large areas of plantation tend to offer dense vegetation and, therefore, high humidity and shade, which provide suitable environmental conditions for larval habitats, even during the dry season (8). Conversely, during the rainy season, conditions at the edges of fragmented forests, where human settlements are often located, become favorable for larval habitats, rendering villagers susceptible to the disease (6). In addition to changes in habitat and microclimate, social or political changes in the region may affect the transborder movement of malaria into Thailand with consequences for potential reemergence (7). Although the association between rubber plantations and malaria is well known in Southeast Asia, the potential for reemergence should receive substantially more attention from economic, agricultural, and environmental planning bodies. Changes in land use and land cover have the potential to facilitate the transmission of disease to humans. Understanding the influence of land use change on malaria occurrence is critical for shaping future surveillance and control strategies.

Re-mapping the politics of aid: the changing structures and networks of humanitarian assistance in post-tsunami Thailand

The 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami caused massive human and economic destruction. In this paper we argue that the international response to the tsunami exemplifies a shift in the way humanitarian aid is sourced and delivered, and tease out a framework for understanding the continuities and discontinuities that led to differential distribution across a range of sites in southern Thailand. On the one hand we examine the degree to which we can understand differential aid distribution in terms of persistent characteristics in the political economy, such as lack of transparency and corruption . We also consider the importance of ‘traditional’ structures, networks and resiliences and their role in influencing aid distribution. But these sorts of explanations must be nuanced in light of the emergence of new aid linkages and networks, particularly the move from formal organizations to individualized and direct donations. We suggest these patterns reflect new abilities of communities to mobilize trans-national networks, a more participatory approach to aid donation and an opportunity to re-map the multi-scalar politics of aid.

Untangling the Complexity of Liver Fluke Infection and Cholangiocarcinoma in NE Thailand Through Transdisciplinary Learning

AbstractThis study demonstrates how a transdisciplinary learning approach provided new insights for explaining persistent Opisthorchis viverrini infection in northern Thailand, as well as elucidating problems of focusing solely on the parasite as a means of addressing high prevalence of cholangiocarcinoma. Researchers from diverse backgrounds collaborated to design an investigative homestay program for 72 Singaporean and Thai university students in five northeast Thai villages. The students explored how liver fluke infection and potential cholangiocarcinoma development are influenced by local landscape dynamics, aquatic ecology, livelihoods, food culture and health education. Qualitative fieldwork was guided daily by the researchers in a collaborative, co-learning process that led to viewing this health issue as a complex system, influenced by interlinked multidimensional factors. Our transdisciplinary experience has led us to believe that an incomplete understanding of these linkages may reduce the efficacy of interventions. Further, viewing liver fluke infection and cholangiocarcinoma as the same issue is inadvisable. Although O. viverrini infection is an established risk factor for the development of cholangiocarcinoma, multiple factors are known to influence the likelihood of acquiring either. Understanding the importance of the current livelihood transition, landscape modification and the resulting mismatch between local cultures and new socio-ecological settings on cholangiocarcinoma initiation and liver fluke transmission is of critical importance as it may help readjust our view of the respective role of O. viverrini and other socioeconomic risk factors in cholangiocarcinoma etiology and refine intervention strategies. As demonstrated in this study, transdisciplinary approaches have the potential to yield more nuanced perspectives to complex diseases than research that focuses on specific aspects of their epidemiology. They may therefore be valuable when designing effective solutions to context-sensitive diseases such as liver fluke infection and cholangiocarcinoma.

Still vulnerable to killer tsunamis.

WE WISH TO RETRACT OUR REPORT (1) IN WHICH we report that β–N-acetylglucosamine-serine can be biosynthetically incorporated at a defined site in myoglobin in Escherichia coli. Regrettably, through no fault of the authors, the lab notebooks are no longer available to replicate the original experimental conditions, and we are unable to introduce this amino acid into myoglobin with the information and reagents currently in hand. We note that reagents and conditions for the incorporation of more than 50 amino acids described in other published work from the Schultz lab are available upon request. ZHIWEN ZHANG, JEFF GILDERSLEEVE, YU-YING YANG, RAN XU, JOSEPH A. LOO, SEAN URYU, CHI-HUEY WONG, PETER G. SCHULTZ* The University of Texas at Austin, Division of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Austin, TX 78712, USA. Chemical Biology Section, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA. Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA. 6330 Buffalo Speedway, Houston, TX 77005, USA. Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095–1569, USA. University of California, San Diego, CA 92121, USA. The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.

Changes to the life cycle of liver flukes: dams, roads, and ponds

1 Sripa B, Pairojul C. Cholangiocarcinoma: lessons from Thailand. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2008; 24: 349–56. 2 Ziegler AD, Andrews RH, Grundy-Warr C, Sithithaworn P, Petney TN. Fighting liverfl ukes with food safety education. Science 2011; 331: 282–83. 3 Asian Development Bank. Report and recommendation of the president to the board of directors on a proposed loan to the Lao People’s Democratic Republic for the Greater Mekong Subregion: Nam Theun 2 hydroelectric project. Asian Development Bank, 2005. 4 FAO. Fishery and aquaculture country profi les: Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. 2010. 5 Bush SR, Kosy S. Geographical distribution of investment in small-scale rural fi sh ponds. Aquacult Econ Manage 2007; 11: 285–311. 6 Ko J. Public participation in integrated water resource management: villages in Lao PDR and the Mekong River Basin. Master’s thesis, Waterloo University, 2006. 7 Asian Development Bank. Report and recommendation of the president to the board of directors on a proposed loan to the Lao People’s Democratic Republic for the Greater Mekong Subregion: Northern Economic Corridor Project. Asian Development Bank, 2002. 8 De Silva S. First culture-based fi sheries growth cycle in Lao PDR is overwhelmingly encouraging. Aquacult Asia 2008; 13: 9–10. 9 Grundy-Warr C, Andrews RH, Sithithaworn P, et al. Raw attitudes, wetland cultures, lifecycles: socio-cultural dynamics relating to Opisthorchis viverrini in the Mekong basin. Int J Parasitol 2012; 61: 65–70. industry. O viverrini infects at least fi ve species of commercially available fi sh: Barbonymus gonionotus, Cirrhinus mrigala, Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idellus, and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (unpublished). Furthermore, the tiny intestinal fl uke Haplorchis taichui infects 85% of the Laos hatchery and nursery fi sh species—a proportion that is 39% higher than those infected with O viverrini (unpublished). These data suggest that infection before stocking is a likely cause of higher prevalence of O viverrini metacercariae found in fi sh from ponds in Laos than in Thailand. For example, the prevalence of O viverrini in Cyclocheilichthys armatus—a native fi sh that coexists with aquaculture pond species—is tentimes higher in Laos than in Thailand (40% vs 3%), suggesting active and ongoing transmission of the disease after stocking with infected fi sh. These fi ndings show how wellmeaning developments designed to improve livelihoods in the Mekong region threaten to increase an already high prevalence of opisthorchiasis and cholangiocarcinoma. Regulation should be introduced to prevent home garden ponds being stocked with infected fi sh and to exclude O viverrini reservoir hosts such as dogs and cats from the premises of fi sh farms. Advances are also needed in sanitation and education about the risks of eating improperly cooked fi sh. Furthermore, future development projects that aff ect water bodies or natural drainage patterns should be assessed holistically to establish their potential 4 Waterman P, McGann P, Riley M, et al. Applications of advanced genome mapping in the Military Health System polytrauma patient. 49th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the HIV Medicine Association; Boston, MA, USA; Oct 20–23, 2011. Abstract 373. 5 Riley MC, Lee JE, Lesho E, Kirkup BC Jr. Optically mapping multiple bacterial genomes simultaneously in a single run. PLoS One 6: 327085.

Tourism in an Inter-state Borderland: The Case of the Indonesian–Singapore Cooperation

Cross-border cooperation is of obvious importance for the mutual strengthening of the tourism industries of neighbouring countries. Indeed, transnational approaches to tourism are becoming more common, as shown by the World Tourism Organisations concept of ‘inter-regional planning’ and promotion of transnational tourist attractions in diverse parts of the world such as ‘The Mayan World’, the ‘Andes Route’ and ‘Jewels of the Mekong’ (Chang, 1998:77). As well as fitting the nature of the tourism destination, such approaches recognise that tourists will often have a regional rather than a specific destination in mind when making their travel choices. Where the political border divides geographical features, cross-border cooperation can facilitate the marketing of natural travel corridors such as a shared coastline or an archipelago. Cross-border cooperation may help to diversify the appeal of each individual destination by promoting access to complementary locations. It can rationalise investments in tourist infrastructure by encouraging the sharing of facilities such as airports. It can disperse congestion of tourists in one location and prevent the displacement of indigenous communities. Lastly, it can help to spread economic benefits accrued from tourism (Pearce, 1989; Wall, 1997).