Carl W. Swartz

Executive Functions in Elementary School Children With and Without Problems in Written Expression

This study examined the executive functioning of 55 elementary school children with and without problems in written expression. Two groups reflecting children with and without significant writing problems were defined by an average primary trait rating across two separate narratives. The groups did not differ in terms of chronological age, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, special education status, or presence of attention problems or receptive vocabulary capabilities; however, they did differ in reading decoding ability, and this variable was controlled for in all analyses. Dependent measures included tasks tapping an array of executive functions grouped conceptually in accordance with a model of executive functioning reflecting the following domains: initiate, sustain, set shifting, and inhibition/stopping. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) procedures revealed statistically significant group differences on the initiation and set shift domains, with the sustaining domain approaching significance. Children with writing problems performed more poorly in each of these domains, although the effect sizes were small. A multiple regression that employed these four factors and the reading decoding variable to predict the primary trait score from the written narratives revealed a statistically significant regression function; however, reading decoding contributed most of the unique variance to the writing outcome. These findings point out the importance of executive functions in the written language process for elementary school students, but highlight the need to examine other variables when studying elementary school-age children with written expression problems.

Writing strategy instruction with gifted students: Effects of goals and feedback on self‐efficacy and skills∗

This study investigated the influence of goal setting and progress feedback on self‐efficacy and writing achievement. Children received writing strategy instruction over sessions and were given a goal of learning to use the strategy of writing paragraphs. Half of the strategy goal children periodically received feedback on their progress in strategy learning. The strategy goal with progress feedback exerted the greatest impact on achievement outcomes to include transfer. The strategy goal without progress feedback provided some benefits compared with the paragraph goal. Future research suggestions and implications for classroom practice are discussed.

Optimizing rating scales for self-efficacy (and other) research

This article (a) discusses the assumptions underlying the use of rating scales, (b) describes the use of information available within the context of Rasch measurement that may be useful for optimizing rating scales, and (c) demonstrates the process in two studies. Participants in the first study were 330 fourth- and fifth-grade students. Participants provided responses to the Index of Self-Efficacy for Writing. Based on category counts, average measures, thresholds and category fit statistics, the responses on the original 10-point scale were better represented by a 4-point scale. The modified 4-point scale was given to a replication sample of 668 fourth- and fifth-grade students. The rating scale structure was found to be congruent with the results from the first study. In addition, the item fit statistics and item hierarchy indicated the writing self-efficacy construct to be stable across the two samples. Combined, these results provide evidence for the generalizability of the findings and hence utility of this scale for use with samples of respondents from the same population.

Using Generalizability Theory to Estimate the Reliability of Writing Scores Derived from Holistic and Analytical Scoring Methods

Issues surrounding the psychometric properties of writing assessments have received ongoing attention. However, the reliability estimates of scores derived from various holistic and analytical scoring strategies reported in the literature have relied on classical test theory (CT), which accounts for only a single source of variance within a given analysis. Generalizability theory (GT) is a more powerful and flexible strategy that allows for the simultaneous estimation of multiple sources of error variance to estimate the reliability of test scores. Using GT, two studies were conducted to investigate the impact of the number of raters and the type of decision (relative vs. absolute) on the reliability of writing scores. The results of both studies indicated that the reliability coefficients for writing scores decline as (a) the number of raters is reduced and (b) when absolute decisions rather than relative decisions are made.

Aptitude–Treatment Interactions Revisited: Effect of Metacognitive Intervention on Subtypes of Written Expression in Elementary School Students

We examined the effectiveness of a metacognitive intervention for written language performance, based on the Hayes model of written expression, for 73 fourth-grade (n = 38) and fifth-grade (n = 35) students. The intervention consisted of twenty 45-min writing lessons designed to improve their awareness of writing as a problem-solving process. Each of the lessons addressed some aspect of planning, translating, and reflecting on written products; their self-regulation of these processes; and actual writing practice. All instruction was conducted in intact classrooms. Prior to the intervention, all students received a battery of neurocognitive tests measuring executive functions, attention, and language. In addition, preintervention writing samples were obtained and analyzed holistically and for errors in syntax, semantics, and spelling. Following the intervention, the writing tasks were readministered and cluster analysis of the neurocognitive data was conducted. Cluster analytic procedures yielded 7 reliable clusters: 4 normal variants, 1 Problem Solving weakness, 1 Problem Solving Language weaknesses, and 1 Problem Solving strength. The response to the single treatment by these various subtypes revealed positive but modest findings. Significant group differences were noted for improvement in syntax errors and spelling, with only spelling showing differential improvement for the Problem Solving Language subtype. In addition, there was a marginally significant group effect for holistic ratings. These findings provide initial evidence that Writing Aptitude (subtype) × Single Treatment interactions exist in writing, but further research is needed with other classification schemes and interventions.

The Factorial Structure of the North Carolina Teaching Performance Appraisal Instrument

The factorial structure of the performance ratings of 27 teaching practices contained on the North Carolina Teaching Performance Appraisal Instrument (TPAI) is reported in this paper. As currently used, ratings using the TPAI yield five scores: (a) Management of Instructional Time, (b) Management of Student Behavior, (c) Instructional Presentation, (d) Instructional Monitoring, and (e) Instructional Feedback. This five function scoring scheme is based on logical judgement and not empirical evidence. The results a study using factor analysis procedures suggest that a five factor solution that paralleled the current scoring scheme was not as parsimonious as a two factor solution. The clarity and meaningfulness of the interpretation of the two factor solution provides supportive evidence for the construct validity of the TPAI as well as suggestions for a more utilitarian procedure for using the instrument in large scale teaching performance assessment programs.

Measuring Students' Writing Ability on a Computer-Analytic Developmental Scale: An Exploratory Validity Study.

The purpose of the study was to explore the validity of a novel computer-analytic developmental scale, the Writing Ability Developmental Scale. On the whole, collective results supported the validity of the scale. It was sensitive to writing ability differences across grades and sensitive to within-grade variability as compared to human-rated sensitivity. It predicted scores on the human-rated continuous scale very well. As compared to the human-rated continuous scale, it demonstrated similarly constant mean differences across ethnicity and socioeconomic status—although not for all rising grade differences or for gender. There was no genre differential across the two scales, and measurement precision was highly similar for the two scales.

Technological Assessment of Composing: Response to Reviewers

We thank the reviewers for their commentaries. Each review offered important critique that provides a forum for further discussion throughout the writing research community. We address two reviewer concerns that are perhaps foremost when considering measurement validity: the issue of consequential bases for score interpretation and the tension between the complexity of composing and parsimonious measurement of writing ability.

Sharing the Language of Attention Deficits: Educational Programs about Attention for Parents, Their Children, and Professionals

Most researchers agree that individuals with attention deficits benefit more from multimodal management plans incorporating counseling, pharmacological, and psychoeducational strategies than any of these strategies alone. A significant impediment to the successful implementation of multimodal management plans is a lack of a common language for clinicians, educators, parents/caregivers, and individuals with attention deficits to use when discussing attention deficits. The goal of the Controls of Attention Project is to provide all stakeholders with a shared language that both specifies the nature and severity of the problem beyond a global label of AD/HD and is explicitly linked to management strategies.