Dale H. Schunk

Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation

The present experiment tested the hypothesis that self-motivation through proximal goal setting serves as an effective mechanism for cultivating competencies, self-percepts of efficacy, and intrinsic interest. Children who exhibited gross deficits and disinterest in mathematical tasks pursued a program of self-directed learning under conditions involving either proximal subgoals, distal goals, or no goals. Results of the multifaceted assessment provide support for the superiority of proximal self-influence. Under proximal subgoals, children progressed rapidly in self-directed learning, achieved substantial mastery of mathematical operations, and developed a sense of personal efficacy and intrinsic interest in arithmetic activities that initially held little attraction for them. Distal goals had no demonstrable effects. In addition to its other benefits, goal proximity fostered veridical self-knowledge of capabilities as reflected in high congruence between judgments of mathematical self-efficacy and subsequent mathematical performance. Perceived self-efficacy was positively related to accuracy of mathematical performance and to intrinsic interest in arithmetic activities.

Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement

1 Models of Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement.- 2 Operant Theory and REnearch on Self-Regulation.- 3 Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement: A Phenomenological View.- 4 Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Regulated Learning.- 5 Self-Regulated Learning: A Volitional Analysis.- 6 Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement: A Vygotskian View.- 7 The Constructivist Approach to Self-Regulation and Learning in the Classroom.- Author Index.

Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Regulated Learning

Current theoretical accounts of learning view students as active seekers and processors of information (Bandura, 1986; Pintrich, Cross, Kozma, & McKeachie, 1986). Learners’ cognitions can influence the instigation, direction, and persistence of achievement-related behaviors (Brophy, 1983; Corno & Snow, 1986; Schunk, 1989; Weiner, 1985; Winne, 1985). Research conducted within various theoretical traditions places particular emphasis on students’ beliefs concerning their capabilities to exercise control over important aspects of their lives (Bandura, 1982; Corno & Man-dinach, 1983; Covington & Omelich, 1979; Rotter, 1966; Weiner, 1979).

The Development of Academic Self-Efficacy

Publisher Summary This chapter describes the development of academic self-efficacy. This chapter focuses on the development of one type of motivational process: perceived self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to beliefs about ones capabilities to learn or perform behaviors at designated levels. It provides theoretical background information on self-efficacy to show its relation to other similar motivation constructs. According to this chapter, self-efficacy has been shown to play an important role in achievement contexts, and much research supports the idea that it can influence the instigation, direction, persistence, and outcomes of achievement-related actions. In this chapter it traced the purpose of self-efficacy changes with development and has elucidated variables that affect this change. It also suggests profitable areas of future research. This chapter encourages by the rapid increase in self-efficacy research. This chapter concludes that the future should provide greater clarification of the operation of self-efficacy in different domains and highlight ways that self-efficacy can be enhanced in learners across developmental levels.

Peer Models and Children’s Behavioral Change

This article critically reviews the research literature on peer modeling among children as a function of model attributes. Peer modeling is hypothesized to depend in part on perceived similarity between model and observer. Similarity serves as an important source of information for gauging behavioral appropriateness, formulating outcome expectations, and assessing one’s self efficacy for learning or performing tasks. Research is reviewed on the effects of model age, model sex, model competence, number of models, and model background. Peer models can foster diverse types of behavioral change in children, but attribute similarity does not automatically enhance modeling. The conditions under which similarity promotes behavioral change are discussed. Future research needs to assess children’s self-perceptions, as well as maintenance and generalization of behavioral changes. It is suggested that classroom peers can help train social skills, enhance self-efficacy, and remedy skill deficiencies.

Goal and Self-Evaluative Influences During Children’s Cognitive Skill Learning

Two studies investigated how goals and self-evaluation affect motivation and achievement outcomes. In both studies, fourth-grade students received instruction and practice on fractions over sessions. Students worked under conditions involving either a goal of learning how to solve problems (learning goal) or a goal of merely solving them (performance goal). In Study 1, half of the students in each goal condition evaluated their problem-solving capabilities. The learning goal with or without self-evaluation and the performance goal with self-evaluation led to higher self-efficacy, skill, motivation, and task orientation than did the performance goal without self-evaluation. In Study 2, all students in each goal condition evaluated their progress in skill acquisition. The learning goal led to higher motivation and achievement outcomes than did the performance goal. Research suggestions and implications for educational practice are discussed.

Self-Efficacy Perspective on Achievement Behavior.

This article examines the idea that perceived self‐efficacy is an important variable in understanding achievement behavior. Self‐efficacy refers to personal judgments of ones capability to organize and implement behaviors in specific situations. Students gain information about their level of self‐efficacy from self‐performances, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological indices. In forming efficacy judgments, people take into account factors such as perceived ability, task difficulty, effort expenditure, performance aids, and outcome patterns. Even when students acquire efficacy information from self‐performances, efficacy judgments are not mere reflections of those performances because educational practices differ in the type of information they convey about students’ capabilities. Some experimental tests of these ideas are summarized along with their educational implications. The self‐efficacy framework is compared with locus of control, attribution, and self‐worth theories of achieve...

Self-Efficacy and Education and Instruction

Current theoretical accounts of learning and instruction postulate that students are active seekers and processors of information (Pintrich, Cross, Kozma, & McKeachie, 1986; Shuell, 1986). Research indicates that students’ cognitions influence the instigation, direction, strength, and persistence of their achievement behaviors (Schunk, 1989b; Weinstein, 1989; Zimmerman, 1990).

Effects of Effort Attributional Feedback on Children's Perceived Self-Efficacy and Achievement

This experiment tested the hypothesis that effort attributional feedback concerning past accomplishments promotes percepts of self-efficacy and mathematical achievement. Children who lacked subtraction skills received didactic training in subtraction operations with effort attributional feedback concerning past achievement, with feedback concerning future achievement, or with no feedback. Results showed that attributional feedback for past achievement led to more rapid progress in mastering subtraction operations, greater skill development, and higher percepts of self-efficacy. Results of a multiple regression analysis showed that percepts of efficacy and training progress each accounted for a significant increment in the explained portion of variability in posttest skill. This study helps to clarify the role of effort attributional feedback in achievement contexts.

Peer models: influence on children's self-efficacy and achievement

According to Bandura (1977, 1981, 1982), psychological procedures change behavior in part by creating and strengthening perceived self-efficacy, which refers to judgments of ones performance capabilities in a given domain of activity. Self-efficacy can influence choice of activities, effort expended, persistence, and task accomplishments. Efficacy information is conveyed through actual performances, vicarious (observational) experiences, forms of persuasion, and physiological indexes (e.g., heart rate).