Carlena J. Ebben

Bringing the ocean into the laboratory to probe the chemical complexity of sea spray aerosol

The production, size, and chemical composition of sea spray aerosol (SSA) particles strongly depend on seawater chemistry, which is controlled by physical, chemical, and biological processes. Despite decades of studies in marine environments, a direct relationship has yet to be established between ocean biology and the physicochemical properties of SSA. The ability to establish such relationships is hindered by the fact that SSA measurements are typically dominated by overwhelming background aerosol concentrations even in remote marine environments. Herein, we describe a newly developed approach for reproducing the chemical complexity of SSA in a laboratory setting, comprising a unique ocean-atmosphere facility equipped with actual breaking waves. A mesocosm experiment was performed in natural seawater, using controlled phytoplankton and heterotrophic bacteria concentrations, which showed SSA size and chemical mixing state are acutely sensitive to the aerosol production mechanism, as well as to the type of biological species present. The largest reduction in the hygroscopicity of SSA occurred as heterotrophic bacteria concentrations increased, whereas phytoplankton and chlorophyll-a concentrations decreased, directly corresponding to a change in mixing state in the smallest (60–180 nm) size range. Using this newly developed approach to generate realistic SSA, systematic studies can now be performed to advance our fundamental understanding of the impact of ocean biology on SSA chemical mixing state, heterogeneous reactivity, and the resulting climate-relevant properties.

Size-Dependent Changes in Sea Spray Aerosol Composition and Properties with Different Seawater Conditions

A great deal of uncertainty exists regarding the chemical diversity of particles in sea spray aerosol (SSA), as well as the degree of mixing between inorganic and organic species in individual SSA particles. Therefore, in this study, single particle analysis was performed on SSA particles, integrating transmission electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analysis and scanning transmission X-ray microscopy with near edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy, with a focus on quantifying the relative fractions of different particle types from 30 nm to 1 μm. SSA particles were produced from seawater in a unique ocean-atmosphere facility equipped with breaking waves. Changes to the SSA composition and properties after the addition of biological (bacteria and phytoplankton) and organic material (ZoBell growth media) were probed. Submicrometer SSA particles could be separated into two distinct populations: one with a characteristic sea salt core composed primarily of NaCl and an organic carbon and Mg(2+) coating (SS-OC), and a second type consisting of organic carbon (OC) species which are more homogeneously mixed with cations and anions, but not chloride. SS-OC particles exhibit a wide range of sizes, compositions, morphologies, and distributions of elements within each particle. After addition of biological and organic material to the seawater, a change occurs in particle morphology and crystallization behavior associated with increasing organic content for SS-OC particles. The fraction of OC-type particles, which are mainly present below 180 nm, becomes dramatically enhanced with increased biological activity. These changes with size and seawater composition have important implications for atmospheric processes such as cloud droplet activation and heterogeneous reactivity.

Raman microspectroscopy and vibrational sum frequency generation spectroscopy as probes of the bulk and surface compositions of size-resolved sea spray aerosol particles

Sea spray aerosol (SSA) represents one of the largest aerosol components in our atmosphere. SSA plays a major role in influencing climate; however the overall impacts remain poorly understood due to the overall chemical complexity. SSA is comprised of a mixture of inorganic and organic components in varying proportions that change as a function of particle size and seawater composition. In this study, nascent SSA particles were produced using breaking waves, resulting in compositions and sizes representative of the open ocean. The composition of individual SSA particles ranging in size from ca. 0.15 to 10 μm is measured using Raman microspectroscopy, while the interfacial composition of collections of size-resolved particles is probed by sum frequency generation (SFG). Raman spectra of single particles have bands in the 980 to 1030 cm(-1) region associated with the symmetric stretch of the sulfate anion, the 2800 to 3000 cm(-1) region associated with carbon-hydrogen stretches, and from 3200-3700 cm(-1) associated with the oxygen-hydrogen stretches of water. The relative intensities of these features showed a strong dependence on particle size. In particular, submicrometer particles exhibited a larger amount of organic matter compared to supermicrometer particles. However, for external surfaces of homogeneous SSA particles (i.e. particles without a solid inclusion), and also the interfaces of mixed-phase particles, there was a strong SFG response in the aliphatic C-H stretching region for both sub- and supermicrometer particles. This finding suggests that organic material present in supermicrometer particles primarily resides at the interface. The presence of methylene contributions in the SFG spectra indicated disordered alkyl chains, in contrast to what one might expect for a surfactant layer on a sea salt particle. Changes in peak frequencies and relative intensities in the C-H stretching region are seen for some particles after the addition of bacteria, phytoplankton, and growth medium to the seawater. This study provides new insights into the bulk and surface composition of SSA particles and represents a step forward in our understanding of this globally abundant aerosol. It also provides insights into the development of model systems for SSA that may more accurately represent the organic layer at the surface.

Accurate line shapes from sub-1 cm(-1) resolution sum frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy of α-pinene at room temperature.

Despite the importance of terpenes in biology, the environment, and catalysis, their vibrational spectra remain unassigned. Here, we present subwavenumber high-resolution broad-band sum frequency generation (HR-BB-SFG) spectra of the common terpene (+)-α-pinene that reveal 10 peaks in the C-H stretching region at room temperature. The high spectral resolution resulted in spectra with more and better resolved spectral features than those of the Fourier transform infrared, femtosecond stimulated Raman spectra in the bulk condensed phase and those of the conventional BB-SFG and scanning SFG spectroscopy of the same molecule on a surface. Experiment and simulation show the spectral line shapes with HR-BB-SFG to be accurate. Homogeneous vibrational decoherence lifetimes of up to 1.7 ps are assigned to specific oscillators and compare favorably to lifetimes computed from density functional tight binding molecular dynamics calculations. Phase-resolved spectra provided their orientational information. We propose the new spectroscopy as an attractive alternative to time domain vibrational spectroscopy or heterodyne detection schemes for studying vibrational energy relaxation and vibrational coherences in molecules at molecular surfaces or interfaces.

Size-resolved sea spray aerosol particles studied by vibrational sum frequency generation

We present vibrational sum frequency generation (SFG) spectra of the external surfaces and the internal interfaces of size-selected sea spray aerosol (SSA) particles generated at the wave flume of the Scripps Hydraulics Laboratory. Our findings support SSA particle models that invoke the presence of surfactants in the topmost particle layer and indicate that the alkyl chains of surfactant-rich SSA particles are likely to be disordered. Specifically, the SFG spectra suggest that across the range of sizes studied, surfactant-rich SSA particles contain CH oscillators that are subject to molecular orientation distributions that are broader than the narrow molecular distribution functions associated with well-ordered and well-aligned alkyl chains. This result is consistent with the interpretation that the permeability of organic layers at SSA particle surfaces to small reactive and nonreactive molecules may be substantial, allowing for much more exchange between reactive and nonreactive species in the gas or the condensed phase than previously thought. The SFG data also suggest that a one-component model is likely to be insufficient for describing the SFG responses of the SSA particles. Finally, the similarity of the SFG spectra obtained from the wave flume microlayer and 150 nm-sized SSA particles suggests that the SFG active CH oscillators in the topmost layer of the wave flume and the particle accumulation mode may be in similar chemical environments. Needs for additional research activities are discussed in the context of the results presented.

Organic Constituents on the Surfaces of Aerosol Particles from Southern Finland, Amazonia, and California Studied by Vibrational Sum Frequency Generation

This article summarizes and compares the analysis of the surfaces of natural aerosol particles from three different forest environments by vibrational sum frequency generation. The experiments were carried out directly on filter and impactor substrates, without the need for sample preconcentration, manipulation, or destruction. We discuss the important first steps leading to secondary organic aerosol (SOA) particle nucleation and growth from terpene oxidation by showing that, as viewed by coherent vibrational spectroscopy, the chemical composition of the surface region of aerosol particles having sizes of 1 μm and lower appears to be close to size-invariant. We also discuss the concept of molecular chirality as a chemical marker that could be useful for quantifying how chemical constituents in the SOA gas phase and the SOA particle phase are related in time. Finally, we describe how the combination of multiple disciplines, such as aerosol science, advanced vibrational spectroscopy, meteorology, and chemistry can be highly informative when studying particles collected during atmospheric chemistry field campaigns, such as those carried out during HUMPPA-COPEC-2010, AMAZE-08, or BEARPEX-2009, and when they are compared to results from synthetic model systems such as particles from the Harvard Environmental Chamber (HEC). Discussions regarding the future of SOA chemical analysis approaches are given in the context of providing a path toward detailed spectroscopic assignments of SOA particle precursors and constituents and to fast-forward, in terms of mechanistic studies, through the SOA particle formation process.

Vibrational Sum Frequency Generation Spectroscopy of Secondary Organic Material Produced by Condensational Growth from α‑Pinene Ozonolysis

Secondary organic material (SOM) was produced in a flow tube from α-pinene ozonolysis, and collected particles were analyzed spectroscopically via a nonlinear coherent vibrational spectroscopic technique, namely sum frequency generation (SFG). The SOM precursor α-pinene was injected into the flow tube reactor at concentrations ranging from 0.125 ± 0.01 ppm to 100 ± 3 ppm. The oxidant ozone was varied from 0.15 ± 0.02 to 194 ± 2 ppm. The residence time was 38 ± 1 s. The integrated particle number concentrations, studied using a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS), varied from no particles produced up to (1.26 ± 0.02) × 10(7) cm(-3) for the matrix of reaction conditions. The mode diameters of the aerosols increased from 7.7 nm (geometric standard deviation (gsd), 1.0) all the way to 333.8 nm (gsd, 1.9). The corresponding volume concentrations were as high as (3.0 ± 0.1) × 10(14) nm(3) cm(-3). The size distributions indicated access to different particle growth stages, namely condensation, coagulation, or combination of both, depending on reaction conditions. For filter collection and subsequent spectral analysis, reaction conditions were selected that gave a mode diameter of 63 ± 3 nm and 93 ± 3 nm, respectively, and an associated mass concentration of 12 ± 2 μg m(-3) and (1.2 ± 0.1) × 10(3) μg m(-3) for an assumed density of 1200 kg m(-3). Teflon filters loaded with 24 ng to 20 μg of SOM were analyzed by SFG. The SFG spectra obtained from particles formed under condensational and coagulative growth conditions were found to be quite similar, indicating that the distribution of SFG-active C-H oscillators is similar for particles prepared under both conditions. The spectral features of these flow-tube particles agreed with those prepared in an earlier study that employed the Harvard Environmental Chamber. The SFG intensity was found to increase linearly with the number of particles, consistent with what is expected from SFG signal production from particles, while it decreased at higher mass loadings of 10 and 20 μg, consistent with the notion that SFG probes the top surface of the SOM material following the complete coverage of the filter. The linear increase in SFG intensity with particle density also supports the notion that the average number of SFG active oscillators per particle is constant for a given particle size, that the particles are present on the collection filters in a random array, and that the particles are not coalesced. The limit of detection of SFG intensity was established as 24 ng of mass on the filter, corresponding to a calculated density of about 100 particles in the laser spot. As established herein, the technique is applicable for detecting low particle number or mass concentrations in ambient air. The related implication is that SFG is useful for short collection times and would therefore provide increased temporal resolution in a locally evolving atmospheric environment.

Vibrational Mode Assignment of α-Pinene by Isotope Editing: One Down, Seventy-One To Go.

This study aims to reliably assign the vibrational sum frequency generation (SFG) spectrum of α-pinene at the vapor/solid interface using a method involving deuteration of various methyl groups. The synthesis of five deuterated isotopologues of α-pinene is presented to determine the impact that removing contributions from methyl group C-H oscillators has on its SFG response. 0.6 cm(-1) resolution SFG spectra of these isotopologues show varying degrees of differences in the C-H stretching region when compared to the SFG response of unlabeled α-pinene. The largest spectral changes were observed for the isotopologue containing a fully deuterated vinyl methyl group. Noticeable losses in signal intensities allow us to reliably assign the 2860 cm(-1) peak to the vinyl methyl symmetric stretch. Furthermore, upon removing the vinyl methyl group entirely by synthesizing apopinene, the steric influence of the unlabeled C9H14 fragment on the SFG response of α-pinene SFG can be readily observed. The work presented here brings us one step closer to understanding the vibrational spectroscopy of α-pinene.

On molecular chirality within naturally occurring secondary organic aerosol particles from the central Amazon Basin

In this perspectives article, we reflect upon the existence of chirality in atmospheric aerosol particles. We then show that organic particles collected at a field site in the central Amazon Basin under pristine background conditions during the wet and dry seasons consist of chiral secondary organic material. We show how the chiral response from the aerosol particles can be imaged directly without the need for sample dissolution, solvent extraction, or sample preconcentration. By comparing the chiral-response images with optical images, we show that chiral responses always originate from particles on the filter, but not all aerosol particles produce chiral signals. The intensity of the chiral signal produced by the size resolved particles strongly indicates the presence of chiral secondary organic material in the particle. Finally, we discuss the implications of our findings on chiral atmospheric aerosol particles in terms of climate-related properties and source apportionment.

Wintertime overnight NOx removal in a southeastern United States coal‐fired power plant plume: A model for understanding winter NOx processing and its implications

The authors would like to thank theNSF-NCAR Research Aircraft Facility staff. Data are available from NCAR at http://data.eol.ucar.edu/master_list/?project=WINTER. The model algorithm used was developed in IGOR Pro and is available at https://esrl.noaa.gov/csd/groups/csd7/measurements/2015win-ter/pubs/. Funding for Fibiger was sup-ported by NSF award 1433358