Caroline N. Jones

Heparin-based hydrogel as a matrix for encapsulation and cultivation of primary hepatocytes

Primary hepatocytes are commonly used as liver surrogates in toxicology and tissue engineering fields, therefore, maintenance of functional hepatocytes in vitro is an important topic of investigation. This paper sought to characterize heparin-based hydrogel as a three-dimensional scaffold for hepatocyte culture. The primary rat hepatocytes were mixed with a prepolymer solution comprised of thiolated heparin and acrylated poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG). Raising the temperature from 25 degrees to 37 degrees C initiated Michael addition reaction between the thiol and acrylated moieties and resulted in formation of hydrogel with entrapped cells. Analysis of liver-specific products, albumin and urea, revealed that the heparin hydrogel was non-cytotoxic to cells and, in fact, promoted hepatic function. Hepatocytes entrapped in the heparin-based hydrogel maintained high levels of albumin and urea synthesis after three weeks in culture. Because heparin is known to bind growth factors, we incorporated hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)-an important liver signaling molecule - into the hydrogel. HGF release from heparin hydrogel matrix was analyzed using enzyme linked immunoassay (ELISA) and was shown to occur in a controlled manner with only 40% of GF molecules released after 30 days in culture. Importantly, hepatocytes cultured within HGF-containing hydrogels exhibited significantly higher levels of albumin and urea synthesis compared to cells cultured in the hydrogel alone. Overall, heparin-based hydrogel showed to be a promising matrix for encapsulation and maintenance of difficult-to-culture primary hepatocytes. In the future, we envision employing heparin-based hyrogels as matrices for in vitro differentiation of hepatocytes or stem cells and as vehicles for transplantation of these cells.

Resolvin D2 restores neutrophil directionality and improves survival after burns

Following severe burns and trauma injuries, the changes of neutrophil migratory phenotype are a double‐edged sword. Activated neutrophils migrate into injured tissues and help contain microbial infections, but they can also enter normal tissues and damage vital organs. Depleting the neutrophils from circulation protects vital organs against neutrophil‐induced damage but leaves the body exposed to infectious complications. Here we show that restoring normal neutrophil migratory phenotype in rats with burn injuries correlates with improved survival in a classical double‐injury model of sequential burn and septic insults. We uncovered that the directionality of neutrophils from burned rats can be restored both in vitro by 1 nM resolvin D2 (RvD2) and in vivo by RvD2 for 7 d, 25 ng/kg body mass (8–10 ng/rat). Restoring neutrophil directionality dramatically increases survival after a second septic insult at d 9 postburn. Survival of RvD2‐treated animals increases from 0 to 100% after lipopolysaccharide injection and is extended by 1 wk after cecal ligation. Survival does not significantly increase when the restoration of neutrophil directionality is incomplete, following shorter regimens of RvD2. We conclude that restoring neutrophil directionality using RvD2 could have prophylactic value and delay lethal complications after burn injuries.—Kurihara T., Jones, C. N., Yu, Y.‐M., Fischman, A. J., Watada, S., Tompkins, R. G., Fagan, S. P., Irimia, D. Resolvin D2 restores neutrophil directionality and improves survival after burns. FASEB J. 27, 2270–2281 (2013). www.fasebj.org

Subsets of human CD4+ regulatory T cells express the peripheral homing receptor CXCR3

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) migrate into peripheral sites of inflammation such as allografts undergoing rejection, where they serve to suppress the immune response. In this study, we find that ∼30–40% of human CD25hi FOXP3+ CD4+ Tregs express the peripheral CXC chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3) and that this subset has potent immunoregulatory properties. Consistently, we observed that proliferative responses as well as IFN‐γ production were significantly higher using CXCR3‐depleted versus undepleted responders in the mixed lymphocyte reaction, as well as following mitogen‐dependent activation of T cells. Using microfluidics, we also found that CXCR3 was functional on CXCR3pos Tregs, in as much as chemotaxis and directional persistence towards interferon‐γ‐inducible protein of 10 kDa (IP‐10) was significantly greater for CXCR3pos than CXCR3neg Tregs. Following activation, CXCR3‐expressing CD4+ Tregs were maintained in vitro in cell culture in the presence of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor rapamycin, and we detected higher numbers of circulating CXCR3+ FOXP3+ T cells in adult and pediatric recipients of renal transplants who were treated with mTOR‐inhibitor immunosuppressive therapy. Collectively, these results demonstrate that the peripheral homing receptor CXCR3 is expressed on subset(s) of circulating human Tregs and suggest a role for CXCR3 in their recruitment into peripheral sites of inflammation.

Microfluidic chambers for monitoring leukocyte trafficking and humanized nano-proresolving medicines interactions

Leukocyte trafficking plays a critical role in determining the progress and resolution of inflammation. Although significant progress has been made in understanding the role of leukocyte activation in inflammation, dissecting the interactions between different leukocyte subpopulations during trafficking is hampered by the complexity of in vivo conditions and the lack of detail of current in vitro assays. To measure the effects of the interactions between neutrophils and monocytes migrating in response to various chemoattractants, at single-cell resolution, we developed a microfluidic platform that replicates critical features of focal inflammation sites. We integrated an elastase assay into the focal chemotactic chambers (FCCs) of our device that enabled us to distinguish between phlogistic and nonphlogistic cell recruitment. We found that lipoxin A4 and resolvin D1, in solution or incorporated into nano–proresolving medicines, reduced neutrophil and monocyte trafficking toward leukotriene B4. Lipoxin A4 also reduced the elastase release from homogenous and heterogenous mixtures of neutrophils and monocytes. Surprisingly, the effect of resolvin D1 on heterogenous mixtures was antisynergistic, resulting in a transient spike in elastase activity, which was quickly terminated, and the degraded elastin removed by the leukocytes inside the FCCs. Therefore, the microfluidic assay provides a robust platform for measuring the effect of leukocyte interactions during trafficking and for characterizing the effects of inflammation mediators.

Cultivating liver cells on printed arrays of hepatocyte growth factor.

Growth factors are commonly present in soluble form during in vitro cell cultivation experiments in order to provide signals for cellular proliferation or differentiation. In contrast to these traditional experiments, we investigated solid-phase presentation of a hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), a protein important in liver development and regeneration, on microarrays of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. In our experiments, HGF was mixed in solution with ECM proteins (collagen (I), (IV) or laminin) and robotically printed onto silane-modified glass slides. Primary rat hepatocytes were seeded onto HGF/ECM protein microarrays and formed cellular clusters that corresponded in size to the dimensions of individual protein spots (500 microm diameter). Analysis of liver-specific products, albumin and alpha1-antitrypsin, revealed several fold higher levels of expression of these proteins in hepatocytes cultured on HGF/ECM microarrays compared to cells cultivated on ECM proteins alone. In addition, cultivation of hepatocytes on HGF/ECM protein spots led to spontaneous reorganization of cellular clusters from a monolayer into three-dimensional spheroids. We also investigated the effects of surface-tethered HGF on hepatocytes co-cultivated with stromal cells and observed a significantly higher level of albumin in co-cultures where hepatocytes were stimulated by HGF/ECM spots compared to co-cultures created on ECM protein islands without the growth factor. In summary, our study suggests that incorporation of HGF into ECM protein microarrays has a profound and long-lasting effect on the morphology and phenotype of primary hepatocytes. In the future, the number of growth factors printed on ECM microarrays will be expanded to enable multiplexed and combinatorial screening of inducers of cellular differentiation or proliferation.

Cultivating hepatocytes on printed arrays of HGF and BMP7 to characterize protective effects of these growth factors during in vitro alcohol injury

The goal of the present study was to investigate hepato-protective effects of growth factor (GF) arrays during alcohol injury. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)7 were mixed with collagen (I) and robotically printed onto standard glass slides to create arrays of 500 microm diameter spots. Primary rat hepatocytes were seeded on top of the arrays forming clusters corresponding in size to the underlying protein spots. Cell arrays were then injured in culture by exposure to 100 mm ethanol for 48 h. Hepatocytes residing on GF spots were found to have less apoptosis then cells cultured on collagen-only spots. Least apoptosis (0.3% as estimated by TUNEL assay) was observed on HGF/BMP7/collagen spots whereas most apoptosis (17.3%) was seen on collagen-only arrays. Interestingly, the extent of alcohol-induced apoptosis in hepatocytes varied based on the concentration of printed GF. In addition to preventing apoptosis, printed GFs contributed to maintenance of epithelial phenotype during alcohol injury as evidenced by higher levels of E-cadherin expression in HGF-protected hepatocytes. Importantly, GF microarrays could be used to investigate heterotypic interactions in the context of liver injury. To highlight this, stellate cells - nonparenchymal liver cells involved in fibrosis - were added to hepatocytes residing on arrays of either HGF/collagen or collagen-only spots. Exposure of these cocultures to ethanol followed by RT-PCR analysis revealed that stellate cells residing alongside HGF-protected hepatocytes were significantly less activated (less fibrotic) compared to controls. Overall, our results demonstrate that GF microarray format can be used to screen anti-fibrotic and anti-apoptotic effects of growth factors as well as to investigate how signals delivered to a specific cell type modulate heterotypic cellular interactions.

Spontaneous Neutrophil Migration Patterns during Sepsis after Major Burns

Finely tuned to respond quickly to infections, neutrophils have amazing abilities to migrate fast and efficiently towards sites of infection and inflammation. Although neutrophils ability to migrate is perturbed in patients after major burns, no correlations have yet been demonstrated between altered migration and higher rate of infections and sepsis in these patients when compared to healthy individuals. To probe if such correlations exist, we designed microfluidic devices to quantify the neutrophil migration phenotype with high precision. Inside these devices, moving neutrophils are confined in channels smaller than the neutrophils and forced to make directional decisions at bifurcations and around posts. We employed these devices to quantify neutrophil migration across 18 independent parameters in 74 blood samples from 13 patients with major burns and 3 healthy subjects. Blinded, retrospective analysis of clinical data and neutrophil migration parameters revealed that neutrophils isolated from blood samples collected during sepsis migrate spontaneously inside the microfluidic channels. The spontaneous neutrophil migration is a unique phenotype, typical for patients with major burns during sepsis and often observed one or two days before the diagnosis of sepsis is confirmed. The spontaneous neutrophil migration phenotype is rare in patients with major burns in the absence of sepsis, and is not encountered in healthy individuals. Our findings warrant further studies of neutrophils and their utility for early diagnosing and monitoring sepsis in patients after major burns.

Directing hepatic differentiation of embryonic stem cells with protein microarray-based co-cultures.

Embryonic stem cells hold considerable promise in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine as a source of tissue-specific cells. However, realizing this promise requires novel methods for guiding lineage-specific differentiation of stem cells. In this study, we developed a micropatterned co-culture platform for stimulating hepatic differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs). Studies of mESC and hepatic cell adhesion preferences revealed that mESCs required fibronectin for attachment, while hepatic cells (HepG2) preferred collagen (I) substrate and did not adhere to fibronectin. Printing columns of collagen (I) and fibronectin spots (300 microm diameter), followed by sequential seeding of the two cell types, allowed the positioning of clusters of mESCs adjacent to groups of hepatic cells within the same microarray. These micropatterned co-cultures were maintained for up to two weeks in hepatic differentiation media supplemented. To examine the differentiation, mESCs were selectively extracted from the co-culture using laser microdissection and analyzed using real-time reverse transcriptase (RT)-polymerase chain reaction (PCR). These analyses revealed that mESCs co-cultured with HepG2 cells showed a decrease in pluripotency gene expression concomitant with up-regulation of endodermal genes. In addition, the co-culture format induced a significant increase in the expression of liver genes compared to mESCs cultured alone. In conclusion, micropatterned co-cultures of mESCs and hepatic cells showed a significant promise in driving stem cell differentiation towards hepatic phenotype. In the future, this cell culture platform will be further enhanced to enable efficient conversion of mouse and human ESCs to hepatocytes.

Multifunctional protein microarrays for cultivation of cells and immunodetection of secreted cellular products.

The microarray format is being used extensively for combinatorial screening of cellular interactions with proteins, small molecules, or biomaterials. The utility of microarray-based cell cultivation approaches may be enhanced further by incorporating biosensing elements alongside the cell-adhesive ligands to enable local detection of secreted cellular products. The concept of combining cells and sensing elements in the same microarray is demonstrated in the present paper with hepatocytes serving as a model cellular system. Robotic microarraying was employed to print arrays of 300-mum-diameter collagen (I) spots alongside the antibody (Ab) spots specific to liver proteins: albumin and alpha1-antitrypsin (alpha1-AT). Protein microarrays were printed onto poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogel-coated glass slides, thus eliminating nonspecific adsorption of cells or proteins. When incubated with printed microarrays, hepatocytes became localized on collagen (I) domains but did not attach on Ab spots or elsewhere on hydrogel-coated glass substrates. Liver-specific proteins secreted by hepatocytes were captured on Ab domains in the immediate vicinity of the cells, detected with a sandwich immunofluorescent assay and quantified using a microarray scanner. Importantly, hepatic albumin and alpha1-AT production detected in the microarray was comparable to enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay measurements of these proteins. In the future, the juxtaposition of sensing Ab regions with cell arrays will be particularly useful for the detection of local appearance or loss of phenotype of cells interacting with the printed components of the cellular microenvironment.

Measuring neutrophil speed and directionality during chemotaxis, directly from a droplet of whole blood.

Neutrophil chemotaxis is critical for defense against infections and its alterations could lead to chronic inflammation and tissue injury. The central role that transient alterations of neutrophil chemotaxis could have on patient outcomes calls for its quantification in the clinic. However, current methods for measuring neutrophil chemotaxis require large volumes of blood and are time consuming. To address the need for rapid and robust assays, we designed a microfluidic device that measures neutrophil chemotaxis directly from a single droplet of blood. We validated the assay by comparing neutrophil chemotaxis from finger prick, venous blood and purified neutrophil samples. We found consistent average velocity of (19 ± 6 μm/min) and directionality (91.1%) between the three sources. We quantified the variability in neutrophil chemotaxis between healthy donors and found no significant changes over time. We also validated the device in the clinic and documented temporary chemotaxis deficiencies after burn injuries.