Caroline Wakefield

The effect of lumbar extension training with and without pelvic stabilization on lumbar strength and low back pain.

INTRODUCTION A dynamometer employing a stabilization procedure (lumbar extension machine, MedX, Ocala, FL) is effective in improving strength and reducing symptoms of low back pain (LBP), and researchers have hypothesized that this effectiveness is due to the pelvic stabilization. However, effects of the dynamometer with and without pelvic stabilization on LBP have not been compared: This was the aim of the present study. METHODS Forty-two chronic LBP patients were randomly assigned to a lumbar extension training with pelvic stabilization group (STAB; n=15), a lumbar extension without pelvic stabilization group (NO-STAB; n=15) and a control group (n=12). STAB and NO-STAB participants completed one weekly session of dynamic variable resistance exercise (one set of 8-12 repetitions to fatigue) on the lumbar extension machine (with or without pelvic stabilization) for 12 weeks. Pre- and post-test measures of self-reported LBP (101-point visual analog scale; pre-test mean of 25), related disability (Oswestry disability index; pre-test mean of 34) and lumbar strength were taken. RESULTS After the exercise program, the STAB group increased significantly in lumbar strength at all joint angles, and decreased significantly in visual analogue and Oswestry scores. However, there were no significant changes in these variables in the NO-STAB and control groups. DISCUSSION Isolated lumbar extension exercise is very effective in reducing LBP in chronic patients. However, when the pelvis is not stabilized, otherwise identical exercises appear ineffective in reducing LBP.

Functional equivalence or behavioural matching? A critical reflection on 15 years of research using the PETTLEP model of motor imagery

Motor imagery, or the mental rehearsal of actions in the absence of physical movement, is an increasingly popular construct in fields such as neuroscience, cognitive psychology and sport psychology. Unfortunately, few models of motor imagery have been postulated to date. Nevertheless, based on the hypothesis of functional equivalence between imagery, perception and motor execution, Holmes and Collins in 2001 developed the PETTLEP model of motor imagery in an effort to provide evidence-based guidelines for imagery practice in sport psychology. Given recent advances in theoretical understanding of functional equivalence, however, it is important to provide a contemporary critical reflection on motor imagery research conducted using this model. The present article addresses this objective. We begin by explaining the background to the development of the PETTLEP model. Next, we evaluate key issues and findings in PETTLEP-inspired research. Finally, we offer suggestions for, and new directions in, research in this field.

Impact of Differing Frequencies of PETTLEP Imagery on Netball Shooting Performance

This study examined the effects of differing frequencies of PETTLEP imagery on netball shooting performance. Thirty-two female participants were divided into four groups: PETTLEP imagery once per week (1x/wk), PETTLEP imagery twice per week (2x/wk), PETTLEP imagery three times per week (3x/wk) and a control. During the pre-test and post-test participants were required to complete a total of twenty shots from five different points within the shooting zone. They were awarded points (out of five) for each shot, giving a possible total of 100 points. The numbers of shots scored was also recorded. Following the pre-test, the imagery participants imaged the twenty shots the required number of times per week. The control group completed some netball specific stretching. Transfer tests were also completed to assess the transferability of the intervention to related tasks. Group x test ANOVAs for performance score and shots scored revealed a significant interaction effect (p<.01). Tukey tests revealed that the 3x/wk imagery group improved performance on both measures, whereas the 2x/wk, 1x/wk and control group did not. These results support the notion that PETTLEP imagery may be more effective if completed at least three times per week.

Perfecting practice: applying the PETTLEP model of motor imagery

Holmes and Collins’ (2001) PETTLEP model of imagery provides a framework for the effective execution of imagery interventions. The model includes seven key components to consider when developing an intervention, denoted by the acronym PETTLEP (Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion, Perspective). Over recent years, the model has gained much research support. This paper explores the research that has tested the model and provides recommendations for those interested in implementing PETTLEP-based imagery interventions, including a summary of our points as a brief take-home guide to implementing PETTLEP interventions.

Feeding forward from summative assessment: the Essay Feedback Checklist as a learning tool

Owing to the increasing diversity of assessments in higher education, feedback should be provided to students in a format that can assist future and alternative work. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of the Essay Feedback Checklist on future alternative assessments. Participants were assigned to one of two groups, one of which completed the checklist prior to assessment 1 (essay) and received feedback using this method. Attainment on assessment 1 and assessment 2 (examination) were taken as pre- and post-test scores. Results revealed increased assessment scores for the checklist group, compared to those who received conventional feedback. Focus group data indicated that students particularly liked elements of the checklist as a feedback method, but potential drawbacks were also highlighted. Implications and future use of the checklist is then discussed.

Using PETTLEP imagery to improve music performance: A review

Imagery is commonly used by both athletes and musicians as an additional training aid to enhance performance. Although considerable research attention has been paid to this psychological intervention technique in sporting settings, studies investigating the beneficial effects of imagery on musical performance are less common. Imagery research that has been conducted in musical settings has tended to show that imagery is beneficial in improving performance, although few guidelines exist in the music literature regarding how musicians could use imagery to improve their performance. In this article, we review the research which has investigated the use of imagery as a performance enhancing technique in musical settings to date. We then outline a model for designing imagery interventions (known as the PETTLEP model) which has produced beneficial performance effects when implemented in sporting settings, and discuss how it could be used by musicians to enhance performance.

A timely review of a key aspect of motor imagery: a commentary on Guillot et al.(2012)

The timing of motor imagery has recently received attention from a number of researchers, culminating in a comprehensive review by Guillot and colleagues. This paper aims to further explore this issue, building upon the said review to suggest a number of other important timing-related issues. Specifically, we consider the possible role of bio-informational theory (Lang, 1979, 1985) and the recent proposal of “behavioral matching” in conjunction with the PETTLEP model (Holmes and Collins, 2001) of motor imagery. Furthermore, we explore the possibility that timing has important implications for motivational aspects of imagery. We then discuss the potential role of rhythm, an important but often overlooked aspect of skilled motor performance, and its links to the timing issue. Finally, we conclude by offering suggestions for future imagery timing research to examine this relatively under-researched area of imagery.

“We do it for the team” – Student-athletes’ initiation practices and their impact on group cohesion

Hazing or inappropriate initiation activities are a well-documented occurrence within university sport team societies. This study examined the occurrence of initiation activities in relation to team cohesion. One hundred and fifty-four participants completed the Group Environment Questionnaire and the Team Cohesion Questionnaire in relation to initiation activities at their institution. Results revealed that athletes were more aware of appropriate than inappropriate initiation activities, with males being aware of a higher occurrence of inappropriate activities than females. Results were also analysed by sport type, revealing that interactive team sport players recorded higher hazing scores than co-acting players. With regard to cohesion, no significant relationship was found between hazing and cohesion suggesting the notion that initiations enhance cohesion in sport is untrue.

An exploration of male student athletes’ engagement in initiation activities.

An active pregnancy encompasses benefits that apply to both mother and baby. However, before investing resources in interventions aimed at changing or supporting expectant mothers’ physical activity behaviours, it is necessary to have a greater fundamental understanding of the modifiable factors influencing women’s decisions during this time. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to investigate the socio-cognitive determinants of physical activity during pregnancy. A mixed methods research approach using a multiphase design framed by the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1991, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179-211) guided the investigation. Following ethical approval and permission to carry out the study, participants were recruited from randomly selected antenatal clinics in the East Kent region of England. Application of the TPB required both qualitative and quantitative cross-sectional data to be collected. Study One (n = 18) involved the elicitation of pregnant women’s beliefs towards being physically active. The modal salient behavioural, normative and control beliefs were used to inform the development of a TPB questionnaire which was implemented during the next phase of the investigation. Study Two (n = 78) examined the predictive utility of the TPB in explaining pregnant women’s physical activity intentions and behaviour and scrutinised the role of past behaviour within this context. Finally, Study Three (n = 10) comprised semi-structured interviews involving community midwives. Meta-inferences maintained the function of improving the validity of the study and advancing the overall aim of the research project. Specifically, triangulation was used to ascertain convergence, corroboration, and correspondence of findings between studies. Whilst results of the individual studies hold merit, meta-inferences point towards the development of three main themes: (1) pregnant women lack access to the necessary information that would allow them to make informed decisions regarding their engagement in physical activities; (2) a co-ordinated effort involving interprofessional collaboration is required to support pregnant women in overcoming barriers associated with regular physical activity participation; and (3) profiling pregnant women according to motivation and behaviour status could serve as a useful and manageable starting point for intervening to produce positive changes in pregnant women’s physical activity behaviour. In normalising physical activity during pregnancy and achieving better health outcomes for mothers and babies, it is necessary to consider the modifiable factors involved in behaviour change, identify opportune moments to intervene, and involve a network of professionals in facilitating and supporting pregnant women’s engagement with physical activities.Life skills are defined as a range of transferrable skills needed for everyday life (Jones and Lavallee, 2009, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 159-167). According to Benson and Saito’s (2001, In P.L. Benson & K.J. Pittman (Eds.), Trends in youth development: Visions, realities and challenges (pp. 135-154). London, UK: Kluwer Academic Publishers) framework for youth development theory and research, life skills impact upon young people’s academic performance, health and well-being. Thus, the aim of this study was to explore the relationships between university sports degree students’ life skills (teamwork, goal setting, time management, emotional skills, interpersonal communication, social skills, leadership, and problem solving & decision making) and their academic self-efficacy, predicted academic performance, health-related quality of life (physical, emotional, social, and work/school functioning), and flourishing. With institutional ethics approval, 423 sports degree students (male = 236, female = 187, mean age = 20.42 ± 2.56 years) completed a survey assessing the main study variables. Standard multiple regression analyses revealed that time management (B = .51, P < .001), problem solving & decision making (B = .23, P < .01), and goal setting (B = .15, P < .05) contributed significantly to students’ academic self-efficacy. Time management was the only significant contributor to students’ predicted academic performance (B = 2.23, P < .001). In terms of health-related quality of life, emotional skills (B = .23, P < .001) were the only significant contributor to students’ emotional functioning, social skills (B = .18, P < .001) were the only contributor to students’ social functioning, and both time management (B = .25, P < .001) and problem solving & decision making (B = .14, P < .05) contributed significantly to students’ work/school functioning. Finally, five life skills contributed significantly to students’ flourishing: social skills (B = .27, P < .001), leadership (B = .26, P < .01), emotional skills (B = .20, P < .001), goal setting (B = .14, P < .01), and time management (B = .13, P < .01). Interpretation of the results suggest that university degree programmes and staff (e.g., lecturers or learning services) should help sports degree students develop these life skills which contribute to their academic performance, health-related quality of life, and flourishing. In practice, staff could provide specific learning sessions during the degree programme, that target the development of key life skills at what is a critical developmental period of young adulthood.This abstract was published in Journal of Sports Sciences : BASES Conference 2017 – Programme and Abstracts on 24 November 2017 (online) available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2017.1378421Reactive strength index (RSI) has been described as an individual’s ability to change quickly from an eccentric to a concentric contraction (Young, 1995, New Studies in Athletics, 10, 825-833). RSI has been used in the practical strength and conditioning setting and exercise science literature as a means of quantifying stretch-shortening cycle performance (Flanagan and Comyns, 2008, Strength and Conditioning Journal, 30, 32-38). A drop jump test has been used extensively to assess an athlete’s RSI capabilities. Recently, RSI has been derived from the average of the best 5 jumps obtained from a series of 10 maximal repeated bilateral hops (10/5 repeated jump test (RJT)) (Harper, Hobbs and Moore, 2011, BASES Student Conference). Limited research exists on the interday reliability and usefulness (ability to detect the smallest worthwhile change) of the 10/5 RJT with no reported research for a female population. This study aimed to assess the reliability and usefulness of RSI derived from the 10/5 RJT for an amateur female field sport population. With institutional ethical approval, 15 female participants (mean age: 21.1 ± 0.9 years; stature: 1.65 ± 0.73 m; body mass: 62.0 ± 5.1 kg) (mean ± s) completed 2 trials of the 10/5 RJT with 60 s rest after a specific warm-up protocol on two testing sessions separated by a minimum of 48 hours. A 10/5 RJT technique familiarisation session preceded the two testing sessions. For all 10/5 RJT trials the participants were instructed to minimise ground contact time and maximise jump height. The best trial from each testing day was used for the interday reliability and usefulness analysis. Acceptable reliability was determined at an ICC ≥ 0.8 and a CV ≤ 10% (Hopkins, 2000, Sports Medicine, 30, 1-15). The reported ICC for RSI was 0.91 (95% CI; 0.76 to 0.97) and the CV was 7.3%. In order to assess the usefulness of the test the typical error (TE) was compared to the smallest worthwhile change (SWC). The SWC for RSI in the 10/5 RJT test was 0.09 units (SWC%: 7.0%), while the TE was 0.14 units. Therefore the usefulness of this test for this female population is rated as ‘marginal’ (Hopkins, 2004, Sportscience, 8, 1-7). The results suggest that the 10/5 RJT is a reliable test for RSI as both criteria for acceptable reliability were satisfied but the ability of the test to detect the SWC is marginal.Metacognition refers to our ability to control, modify, and interpret cognitive activity (Wells & Cartwright-Hatton, 2004, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 385–396). Research suggests dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs can be an important factor in the development and maintenance of mental health problems (Cotter, Yung, Carney, & Drake, 2017, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 90, 25–31). Mental toughness represents a collection of personal resources that may act as a positive indicator of mental health (Gucciardi et al., 2016, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 20, 307–311). Therefore the purpose of our study was to assess whether an inverse relationship existed between mental toughness and metacognitive factors associated with psychopathology. Following institutional ethical approval 60 undergraduate university students (mean age: 21.07 ± 4.19 years) studying various sport science related degree programmes voluntarily consented to participate in the current study. Participants completed the Metacognitions Questionnaire-30 (Wells & Cartwright-Hatton, 2004, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 385–396) and Mental Toughness Index (Gucciardi et al., 2015, Journal of Personality, 83, 26–44). Questionnaires were counterbalanced to reduce order effects with participants on average taking nine minutes to complete both questionnaires. A Pearson bivariate correlation recorded significant negative relationships between the mental toughness index, total MCQ-30 (r = –.334, P < 0.01, BCa 95% CI: –.639–.084) scores, positive beliefs about worry (r = –.329, P = < 0.01, BCa 95% CI: –.652–.010), and negative beliefs about thoughts concerning uncontrollability and danger (r = –.330, P = <0.05, BCa 95% CI: –.652–.109) subscale scores. Our investigation suggests that mental toughness is a state-like psychological resource that may contribute to people being less likely to adopt metacognitive beliefs, judgements, and monitoring tendencies associated with the development and maintenance of psychological disorders. More specifically, mental toughness scores were negatively associated with positive beliefs about worry suggesting that participants were unlikely to consider worrying as a means to cope and avoid problems in the future. In addition, responses to items indicative of persistent worrying thoughts that can be accompanied with unpleasant somatic effects were also inversely associated with mental toughness scores. Practitioners may wish to consider developing higher levels of mental toughness as a means of mitigating against the adoption of negative metacognitive processing and in doing so minimise the emergence of negative mental health symptoms (e.g., depression, anxiety).Despite extensive research exploring the psychological phenomenon of flow in performance contexts for individuals, there is a paucity in literature with regards to the experience of group flow in team sports. Whilst group flow has received attention in predominantly non-sporting domains, only a limited amount of research has explicitly explored group flow experiences of athletes (Bakker et al., 2011, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12, 442–450). As such, the aim of this study was to investigate perceptions of group flow experience of athletes that competed in team sports, applying a qualitative framework. A particular emphasis was placed on exploring the characteristics involved in group flow and the factors that facilitate or disrupt this experience. With institutional ethical approval, semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight (N = 8) athletes (mean age: 24.0 ± 3.96, years’ experience playing their sport 9.9 ± 2.17) from a variety of standards (ranging from national to recreational), and sports (including soccer, rugby, tennis doubles, camogie, and handball). The trustworthiness of the data was established through peer debriefs, critical peer review, and member checking. Subsequent data analysis included both inductive and deductive analysis, based on Sparkes and Smith’s (2013, Qualitative research methods in sport, exercise and health: From process to product. London: Routledge) recommendations. Inductive analysis created higher order themes from the raw data, and these themes were deductively coded into Csikszentmihalyi’s (2002, Flow: The classic work on how to achieve happiness. 2nd ed. London. Rider Books) model of flow, producing eight characteristics describing the experience of group flow. When athletes experienced group flow they also perceived an enhancement in team performance, and shared understanding with teammates. In particular, a perceived shared understanding between teammates was associated with heightened automaticity of movement and decisions. Group flow was reported to be facilitated by high levels of confidence within the team at both an individual and collective level, and by positive team play and interactions. Group flow disruptors included negative interactions from team-mates, such as criticism. The current study provides a detailed understanding of athletes’ perceptions of group flow in relation to current flow theories, with considerations outlined for theoretical development and practical application of developing group flow.It is hypothesised that the human unconscious consists of two layers: the personal unconscious and collective unconscious (Jung, 1959, The archetypes and the collective unconscious. London: Routledge). Personal experience is theorised to define the former while inherent behavioural patterns, dubbed archetypes, form the latter, these being universal to all human minds. Previous studies reveal that individuals exhibiting mature archetypes, specifically the warrior archetype, can enhance development and performance in sport. (Moore & Gillete, 1990, King, warrior, magician, lover: rediscovering the archetypes of the mature masculine. San Francisco: Harper Collins Publishers). The psychosocial journey from immature hero to mature warrior is conceptualised as a complex interweaving between an individual’s collective unconscious, inherited self, and environment that is yet to be contextualised. Therefore, the aims of this study on talent development and performance in English football academies are to explore the implications of the immature and mature archetypes called the hero and the warrior, and their bipolar counterparts the bully and the coward, and the sadist and the masochist. This is with a view to exploring the impact of various talent development environments and coaching methods on the psychosocial development of football players. Following ethical approval, a two stage ethnographic study was conducted using an interpretist approach. Stage one was comprised of eight field observations (four per team) of an under nine and under ten team in a category three English football academy. In stage two semi-structured interviews with key academy staff members concerning their experiences with and perceptions of the participants and the club’s talent pathway to establish major and minor themes. Results indicate that although they are considered psychosocially immature, participants were accessing the warrior/hero and their bipolar archetypes numerous times during one session/ game. Participants who displayed behaviours of the warrior and hero archetypes regularly were perceived by academy staff to be developing and performing more effectively in comparison to participants habitually accessing the bipolar archetypes. Results also show a potential link between the use of planned traumas in a situational based approach underpinned by a warrior/hero-based culture and effective development of these archetypes. Further research is required to fully comprehend the psychosocial maturation process from the immature to the mature warrior archetype and the mediators to psychosocial growth before stronger conclusions are made. Correspondingly, the researcher recommends that practitioners in English football academies identify the archetypes that an athlete is displaying and facilitate appropriate experiences to enhance development and performance.This abstract was published in Journal of Sports Sciences : BASES Conference 2017 – Programme and Abstracts on 24 November 2017 (online) available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2017.1378421