Carson L. Jenkins

Tourism : the state of the art

Tourism and development the tourism industry tourism marketing and research tourism, the public sector and Scotland tourism and human resource management tourism and the environment tourism and society.

The evolution of tourism planning in Third‐World countries: a critique

The trend in tourism development has been to use comprehensive, flexible, community driven and systematic planning approaches. These approaches seek to sustain tourism as an agent for socio-cultural and economic development. Contemporary planning approaches were developed by taking into account the socio-economic, political and human resources conditions in developed rather than in developing countries. Therefore, these planning approaches may not be transferable to and implementable in developing countries without considerable adaptations.

The effects of scale in tourism projects in developing countries

Abstract The paper by Rodenburg (Annals VII:2:177–196) on the effect of scale in tourism development in Bali raises important questions relating to tourism development in Third World countries. One fundamental question is whether large-scale development is inevitable in such countries, or whether there is persuasive evidence to support smaller and craft scale enterprises. This article undertakes a critical review of Rodenburgs analysis and concludes that large scale developments are likely to be inevitable because of external economies of scale and market structures in international tourism, but that the consequences of such developments can be foreseen and therefore mitigated by appropriate pre-project planning.

Regional planning approaches to tourism development: the case of Turkey.

Abstract In developing countries, most, if not all, development of the tourism sector is a product of central planning. This approach has its limitations, particularly related to considerations of community involvement in the development process. This article discusses the case for a decentralized approach to tourism planning and examines the situation in Turkey to exemplify the points made.

The use of investment incentives for tourism projects in developing countries

Abstract The use of investment incentives to attract capital finance is common to both developed and developing countries. This article (a) examines the reasons why investment incentives are offered, (b) describes the main characteristics of these incentives and (c) suggests guidelines for the use of such incentives to promote tourism development. Although this analysis is related primarily to developing countries, much of the comment is pertinent to developed countries.

Tourism policy and planning for developing countries: some critical issues.

The paper aims at considering the evolution of tourism since 1950 and identifying some of the main influences in the development process. It also explores the role of tourism in development, and evaluates how tourism has impacted on developing countries. It concludes by identifying some critical issues both internal and external to these countries, and suggests how these might hinder or encourage further development of tourism.

Is Tourism Vulnerable? An Ambiguous Question

The question posed by Aramberri in the lead paper is perhaps ambiguous because it does not go on to spedfy what aspect of vulnerability tourism might be subject to, but rather concentrates on the well-recognized deficiencies in the collection of statistics relating to measurement of international tourist arrivals and consequent expenditures. Similarly, the roles of the UNWTO and WTTC as ad vacates of tourism as a stimulus to development initiatives through the redistribution of wealth on a global scale are equally well known. In this response to Aramberris article his critique of the available international tourism statistics, and the continuing neglect of domestic tourism measurement, is accepted. There seems little value in revisiting this topic which he has thoroughly reviewed. The following comments focus on the question of vulnerability and whether tourism is more vulnerable to fluctuations in demand than other traded items; the comments are generally applicable to both international and domestic tourism as they essentially focus on some of the factors which potential tourists consider before committing to a journey for leisure purposes. Although these factors may equally be considered by business travellers, this latter group are not primarily motivated to travel for leisure purposes although they may well add-on a leisure component to a business trip.

Tourism and welfare: a good idea and a pious hope!

Hall and Brown are to be congratulated in bringing to our attention some of the most important – and controversial – questions relating to the social and ethical responsibilities of tourism companies. Somehow, there is a growing perception that ‘responsible tourism’ and ‘ethical’ practices are parameters for business practice. The fact that there is no consensus on how these factors should be defined and measured does not seem to have limited their significance. Hall and Brown (2008) note, quoting Henderson (2007), there are important questions relating to the choice of social responsibilities which tourism businesses can sensibly undertake, and ways in which they can be measured and justified. If welfare includes impacts on the wider society and not just in the sphere of tourism business activity, then what are these impacts and what benchmarks will we use to evaluate them? In response to the article there are eight points to be made.

An Area of Darkness? Tourism in the Third World Revisited

This Department has been specifically created to include findings of special significance and problem areas of subtle nuances in tourism research. Insightful contributions presenting the state-of-the-art, preferably from the developing societies, will be appreciated. It will also encourage scholars and authors to think against the grain, probing the consistency of theoretical notions and research trends whose heuristic value is all too often taken for granted. For details, contact Editor-in-Chief, Tourism Recreation Research, A-965/6 Indira Nagar, Lucknow, India. e-mail: tvsingh@sancharnet.in

'Mass Tourism' is an Out-dated Concept - A Misnomer?

I agree with the author that ‘mass tourism’ is now an outdated concept and as currently used, no longer relevant to our understanding of tourism. ‘Mass tourism’ is essentially a ‘quantitative’ concept describing the very rapid growth in demand for international tourism trips. It was used, and subsequently abused, by many academic writers in the post-World War II period to describe the ‘characteristics’ of a particular travel group or phenomenon. The group in question were those travelling on the ‘package tour’ usually using the chartered aircraft as the preferred mode of travel. It was a term which indirectly described the democratization of international travel in post war Europe (this type of travel organization was never a feature of the United States’ market). As originally used, it was a positive term which reflected peoples’ recovery from war-ravaged Europe and their increasing economic status and determination to enjoy international travel as part of their leisure pursuits. In latter years, ‘mass tourists’ seem to have been categorized as representing all that is wrong with tourism; it has increasingly been used as a negative connotation. It is indisputable that the term ‘mass tourism’ lacks agreed definition, is subjective, and is a post-war relic. But as international tourism has grown over the last fifty years or so, so have the attempts to further classify tourist groups within the market as the author notes in referencing the works of Valene Smith (1977), Plog (1972) and Turner and Ash (1975). In Figure 1, the author further refers to the plethora of terms now used to describe various categories of tourists. These terms, unlike ‘mass tourism’ are not quantitative. They are used to categorize groups according to perceived behavioural characteristics. Whether this is a useful approach to market segmentation is debatable. If the term ‘mass tourism’ has any validity then it can only be based on its quantitative connotation which links directly to the concept of ‘carrying capacity’, another much debated term in the tourism literature. As the number of tourist arrivals increase there will be implication for, and impacts on, the destination area. It is from these impacts relating to social, cultural and environmental considerations that has spawned much of the negative literature on tourism. For example, a visitor arrival increase of say 40,000 tourists per annum would have limited impact on a city like London or the Balearic Islands. A similar increase in Bhutan, Seychelles or Uganda would be unsustainable. This example can be interpreted as developing a ‘critical mass’ of tourists (in relation to the available capacity of the infrastructure and tourist amenities). Most studies of tourism development options are demand-led. Analyses of market segments and the development of segmented market profiles (irrespective of terminology) are major initial steps in formulating plans. As the author notes, these tend to be done on a country basis, e.g., a German market profile, an Austrian profile. Almost no use is made of the generic descriptors such as New Age tourists, non-secular tourists, modern cultural tourists (what do these titles mean?). Market segmentation is done to permit demand projections and profiles to better ‘fit’ these to market characteristics. However, what is of fundamental importance in tourism planning is not whimsical descriptions of various tourism groups, but rather their ‘ability to pay’ for the services offered. There is no evidence that a hotelier would be concerned if his guest was described as an ‘elite’, ‘mass’ or ‘New Age’ tourist provided they could pay for the services offered. Over time, as a type of demand builds up, then this might induce a supply-led initiative to provide alternatives in the market (an example would be the growth in 3-star accommodation in India from the mid-80s onward.) However, this is a secondary development and in some ways can be regarded as a ‘trickle-down’ effect from the traditionally dominant 5-star market in that country.