Cecil D. Mercer

Learning Disabilities Definitions and Criteria Used by State Education Departments.

This article reports the results of a survey of the 51 state departments of education (including Washington, DC) regarding their definitions of learning disabilities, identification criteria, and operationalization procedures. A conceptual framework consisting of eight components was used in analyzing the definitions and identification criteria. Results show the continued effect of the 1977 federal definition and criteria while revealing variations in state definitions and criteria. For example, several state definitions now include the neurological component, and use of discrepancy criteria is increasing. To determine current trends, the data are compared with those from a similar survey published in 1990. Findings are discussed in terms of trends, prereferral interventions, and noncategorical identification.

Teaching Algebra to Students with Learning Difficulties: An Investigation of an Explicit Instruction Model

Thirty-four matched pairs of sixth- and seventh-grade students were selected from 358 participants in a comparison of an explicit concrete- to-representational-to-abstract (CRA) sequence of instruction with traditional instruction for teaching algebraic transformation equations. Each pair of students had been previously labeled with a spe- cific learning disability or as at risk for difficulties in algebra. Students were matched according to achievement score, age, pretest score, and class performance. The same math teacher taught both members of each matched pair, but in different classes. All students were taught in inclusive settings under the instruction of a middle school mathematics teacher. Results indicated that students who learned how to solve algebra transformation equations through CRA outperformed peers receiving traditional instruction on both postinstruction and follow-up tests. Additionally, error pattern analysis indicated that students who used the CRA sequence of instruction performed fewer procedural errors when solving for variables. Abstract thinking requires a person to work with infor- mation that is not readily represented at the concrete or pictorial level (Hawker & Cowley, 1997). To work with abstract information is to understand theoretical properties and think beyond what a person can touch or see. On a practical level, an ability to work with abstract concepts allows one to work with predictions of what may happen and expectations about what is happening elsewhere. Abstract knowledge may also be considered a conscious awareness that a symbol stands for some

Educational Aspects of Mathematics Disabilities

Research suggests that students with learning disabilities have significant difficulty acquiring and retaining math skills. A variety of factors seem to be contributing to the poor math performance of these individuals. The purpose of this article is to discuss these factors and make recommendations that will enhance the likelihood of better math performance. The article begins with a discussion of national reform movements that have influenced math instruction (i.e., National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Standards, minimum competency testing, graduation requirements, inclusion). Next, learner characteristics are reviewed, then issues related to math instruction are described. Finally, ways to improve current practices in math education are discussed.

Teaching Students with Learning Problems in Math to Acquire, Understand, and Apply Basic Math Facts

Students with learning problems (i.e., students with learning disabilities or emotional disabilities and those considered at-risk for school failure) are not making acceptable math progress in the nations schools. Fortunately, instructional practices exist that help these students achieve in math. Ten instructional components that have research support for promoting math achievement are presented. A math curriculum, the Strategic Math Series, which incorporates the research-based teaching practices, is described. Next, the results from field-testing the Strategic Math Series with 22 teachers are presented. The field-test results indicate that 109 students with learning problems were able to (a) acquire computational skills across facts, (b) solve word problems with and without extraneous information, (c) create word problems involving facts, (d) apply a mnemonic strategy to difficult problems, (e) increase their rate of computation, and (f) generalize math skills across examiners, settings, and tasks. Finally, issues in math instruction are discussed, and the need to include best practices within instructional materials is highlighted.

Effects of a Reading Fluency Intervention for Middle Schoolers With Specific Learning Disabilities

A fluency-reading intervention was developed and used to supplement reading instruction of middle school students with learning disabilities (LD). The daily 5- to 6-min fluency intervention focused on phonics, sight phrases, and oral reading. Repeated readings were used in each area until the student achieved mastery on each respective task. The students were divided in three groups according to the length of the intervention (6-9 months, 10-18 months, and 19-25 months). Dependent t tests were used to test the effects of the intervention. A pretest and posttest curriculum-based assessment (CBA) measure was used for each group to determine progress in reading rate. In addition, progress within the intervention was measured using comparisons of beginning and ending reading levels. Significant growth in reading level and reading rate was found. Implications of these results for students with LD are discussed.

Learning Disabilities Definitions Used by State Education Departments

This article features the results of a survey of the 50 State Departments of Education regarding their definitions of learning disabilities, identification criteria, and operationalization procedures. A conceptual framework consisting of 10 components is presented for analyzing the data in terms of definition and identification criteria. Results show a significant impact of the 1977 federal definition and criteria while revealing variations in state definitions and criteria. To determine current trends the data are compared with those from a similar survey conducted in 1976. Survey findings are discussed in terms of trends, heterogeneity of LD, and the NJCLD definition.

Definitions of Learning Disabilities Used in the United States

This article features the results of a survey of 42 state departments of education regarding their respective definitions of learning disabilities and attempts to operationalize them. A conceptual framework consisting of 15 components is presented as a vehicle for analyzing LD definitions. The definitions from the state departments were examined and discussed in terms of those components. The results revealed trends and variations in the state definitions and these are highlighted by a discussion of the approaches used in the states of Washington and Florida to operationalize the LD definition. The use of the conceptual framework and a study of functional relationships between behavior and environment are two of the procedures recommended to enhance the development of an acceptable definition of LD.

Early Identification-An Analysis of the Research.

The early identification of children who are at risk of experiencing school problems has become a major area of interest within special education. Teacher perception, test batteries, and single instruments are presented as the major types of prediction procedures. The authors discuss general considerations relative to using various prediction models as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the various early identification approaches. - D.D.D.

Empowering Teachers and Students with Instructional Choices in Inclusive Settings

APPROPRIATE INSTRUCTION IN CLASSROOMS WITH DIVERSE LEARNERS REQUIRES A VARIETY OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS TO ADDRESS INDIVIDUAL NEEDS. MANY EDUCATORS, HOWEVER, FIND THEMSELVES PHILOSOPHICALLY TIED TO ONE INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACH FOR EVERY LEARNER TO THE EXCLUSION OF OTHER APPROACHES. THIS ALLEGIANCE TO ONE METHOD OF TEACHING REDUCES CHOICES FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS. STRICT ADHERENCE TO A LIMITED VIEW OF LEARNING CAN ALSO HINDER INCLUSION EFFORTS BY DENYING SOME STUDENTS APPROPRIATE INSTRUCTION. A CONTINUUM OF TEACHING METHODS THAT INCLUDES “EXPLICIT” AND “IMPLICIT” INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES IS PROPOSED AS A MORE INCLUSIVE ALTERNATIVE. RESEARCH THAT SUPPORTS A CONTINUUM OF APPROACHES IS REPORTED ALONG WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION AND TEACHER EDUCATION.

Implications of Constructivism for Teaching Math to Students with Moderate to Mild Disabilities

This article defines constructivism and examines the theory in terms of the view of the learner, the content, teacher-student interactions, motivation, and assessment. The standards generated by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics are reviewed in terms of their sensitivity to students with moderate to mild disabilities. Constructivistic teaching principles are abstracted from the constructivism and learning strategy literature and research. Nineteen instructional components are identified and discussed in terms of teacher behaviors, teacher modeling of explicit strategies, teacher-student interactions, instructional content, and learning factors. An analysis of these components reveals that most constructivists adopt an exogenous constructivistic approach to teaching math to students with moderate to mild disabilities. Finally, obstacles to applying research-based constructivistic components in classrooms are identified.