Charlotte Feldman

A Large Area Detector proposed for the Large Observatory for X-ray Timing (LOFT)

The Large Observatory for X-ray Timing (LOFT) is one of the four candidate ESA M3 missions considered for launch in the 2022 timeframe. It is specifically designed to perform fast X-ray timing and probe the status of the matter near black holes and neutron stars. The LOFT scientific payload is composed of a Large Area Detector (LAD) and a Wide Field Monitor (WFM). The LAD is a 10 m2-class pointed instrument with 20 times the collecting area of the best past timing missions (such as RXTE) over the 2-30 keV range, which holds the capability to revolutionize studies of X-ray variability down to the millisecond time scales. Its ground-breaking characteristic is a low mass per unit surface, enabling an effective area of ~10 m2 (@10 keV) at a reasonable weight. The development of such large but light experiment, with low mass and power per unit area, is now made possible by the recent advancements in the field of large-area silicon detectors - able to time tag an X-ray photon with an accuracy <10 μs and an energy resolution of ~260 eV at 6 keV - and capillary-plate X-ray collimators. In this paper, we will summarize the characteristics of the LAD instrument and give an overview of its capabilities.

The large area detector of LOFT: the Large Observatory for X-ray Timing

LOFT (Large Observatory for X-ray Timing) is one of the five candidates that were considered by ESA as an M3 mission (with launch in 2022-2024) and has been studied during an extensive assessment phase. It is specifically designed to perform fast X-ray timing and probe the status of the matter near black holes and neutron stars. Its pointed instrument is the Large Area Detector (LAD), a 10 m2-class instrument operating in the 2-30keV range, which holds the capability to revolutionise studies of variability from X-ray sources on the millisecond time scales. The LAD instrument has now completed the assessment phase but was not down-selected for launch. However, during the assessment, most of the trade-offs have been closed leading to a robust and well documented design that will be reproposed in future ESA calls. In this talk, we will summarize the characteristics of the LAD design and give an overview of the expectations for the instrument capabilities.

Large thin adaptive x-ray mirrors

This paper describes the progress made in a proof of concept study and recent results of a research program into large active x-ray mirrors that is part of the UK Smart X-ray Optics project. The ultimate aim is to apply the techniques of active/adaptive optics to the next generation of nested shell astronomical X-ray space telescopes. A variety of deformable mirror technologies are currently available, the most promising of which for active X-ray mirrors are probably unimorph and bimorph piezoelectric mirrors. In this type of mirror one or more sheets of piezoelectric material are bonded to or coated with a passive reflective layer. On the back or between the piezoceramic layer/layers are series of electrodes. Application of an electric field causes the piezoelectric material to undergo local deformation thus changing the mirror shape. Starting in 2005 a proof of concept active mirror research program has been undertaken. This work included modelling and development of actively controlled thin shell mirrors. Finite element models of piezo-electric actuated mirrors have been developed and verified against experimental test systems. This has included the modelling and test of piezo-electric hexagonal unimorph segments. Various actuator types and low shrinkage conductive bonding methods have been investigated and laboratory tests of the use of piezo-electric actuators to adjust the form of an XMM-Newton space telescope engineering model mirror shell have been conducted and show that movement of the optics at the required level is achievable. Promising technological approaches have been identified including moulded piezo-ceramics and piezo-electrics fibre bundles.

Toward Active X-ray Telescopes II

In the half century since the initial discovery of an astronomical (non-solar) x-ray source, the observation time required to achieve a given sensitivity has decreased by eight orders of magnitude. Largely responsible for this dramatic progress has been the refinement of the (grazing-incidence) focusing x-ray telescope, culminating with the exquisite subarcsecond imaging performance of the Chandra X-ray Observatory. The future of x-ray astronomy relies upon the development of x-ray telescopes with larger aperture areas (< 1 m2) and comparable or finer angular resolution (< 1″). Combined with the special requirements of grazing-incidence optics, the mass and envelope constraints of space-borne telescopes render such advances technologically challenging—requiring precision fabrication, alignment, and assembly of large areas (< 200 m2) of lightweight (≈ 1 kg m-2 areal density) mirrors. Achieving precise and stable alignment and figure control may entail active (in-space adjustable) x-ray optics. This paper discusses relevant programmatic and technological issues and summarizes current progress toward active x-ray telescopes.

Active X-ray optics for the next generation of X-ray telescopes

The immediate future for X-ray astronomy is the need for high sensitivity, requiring large apertures and collecting areas, the newly combined NASA, ESA and JAXA mission IXO (International X-ray Observatory) is specifically designed to meet this need. However, looking beyond the next decade, there have been calls for an X-ray space telescope that can not only achieve this high sensitivity, but could also boast an angular resolution of 0.1 arc-seconds, a factor of five improvement on the Chandra X-ray Observatory. NASAs proposed Generation-X mission is designed to meet this demand; it has been suggested that the X-ray optics must be active in nature in order to achieve this desired resolution. The Smart X-ray Optics (SXO) project is a UK based consortium looking at the application of active/adaptive optics to both large and small scale devices, intended for astronomical and medical purposes respectively. With Generation-X in mind, an active elliptical prototype has been designed by the SXO consortium to perform point-to-point X-ray focussing, while simultaneously manipulating its optical surface to improve its initial resolution. Following the completion of the large scale SXO prototype, presented is an overview of the production and operation of the prototype, with emphasis on the X-ray environment and preliminary results.

Advances in active X-ray telescope technologies

The next generation of X-ray telescopes will require both high resolution and high sensitivity to target the earliest astronomical objects, to this end the UK based Smart X-ray Optics (SXO) project has been investigating the application of active/adaptive optics to traditional grazing incidence X-ray optics and this has resulted in the fabrication and testing of our first active X-ray prototype in November 2008. Results from these initial tests have proved very encouraging for this advancing technology and have highlighted the prototypes ability to deform its optical surface through piezoelectric actuation. We present a critical analysis of the first prototype system, discussing metrology of the mandrel, the nickel replicated ellipsoidal optics and the prototype. The measured actuator influence functions of the prototype are compared against finite element analysis simulations and the observed characteristics are then described. The advances required in the current technology are then outlined in relation to a second generation of active X-ray prototype, which is scheduled for X-ray testing in 2010.

Active microstructured arrays for x-ray optics

The UK Smart X-Ray Optics programme is developing the techniques required to both enhance the performance of existing X-ray systems, such as X-ray telescopes, while also extending the utility of X-ray optics to a broader class of scientific investigation. The approach requires the control of the inherent aberrations of X-ray systems using an active/adaptive method. One of the technologies proposed to achieve this is micro-structured optical arrays, which use grazing incidence reflection through consecutive aligned arrays of channels. Although such arrays are similar in concept to polycapillary and microchannel plate optics, they are more flexible. Bending the arrays allows variable focal length, while flexing parts of them provides adaptive or active systems. Custom configurations can be designed, using ray tracing and finite element analysis, for applications from sub-keV to several-keV X-rays. The channels may be made using deep silicon etching, which can provide appropriate aspect ratios, and flexed using piezo actuators. An exemplar application will be in the micro-probing of biological cells and tissue samples using Ti Kα radiation (4.5 keV) in studies related to radiation induced cancers.

Progress on the development of active micro-structured optical arrays for x-ray optics

The Smart X-Ray Optics (SXO) project comprises a U.K.-based consortium developing active/adaptive micro-structured optical arrays (MOAs). These devices are designed to focus X-rays using grazing incidence reflection through consecutive aligned arrays of microscopic channels etched in silicon. The silicon channels have been produced both by dry and wet etching, the latter providing smoother channel walls. Adaptability is achieved using piezoelectric actuators, which bend the device and therefore change its focal distance. We aim to achieve a 5 cm radius of curvature which can provide a suitable focal length using a tandem pair MOA configuration. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) modelling has been carried out for the optimization of the MOA device design, consider different types of actuators (unimorph, bimorph and active fibre composites), and different Si/piezoelectric absolute and relative thicknesses. Prototype devices have been manufactured using a Viscous Plastic Processing Process for the piezoelectric actuators and dry etched silicon channels, bonded together using a low shrinkage adhesive. Characterisation techniques have been developed in order to evaluate the device performance in terms of the bending of the MOA channels produced by the actuators. This paper evaluates the progress to date on the actuation of the MOAs, comparing FEA modelling with the results obtained for different prototype structures.

Development of net-shape piezoelectric actuators for large x-ray optics

The design of current X-ray telescope systems needs to reach a compromise between the resolution and sensitivity. A new area of interest of adaptive optics is the development of actively controlled thin X-ray mirrors, where aberrations would be corrected. Their assembly on an X-ray telescope would provide an instrument with both high resolution and sensitivity. The Smart X-Ray Optics (SXO) project comprises a U.K.-based consortium developing prototypes for the next generation of X-ray telescopes. The overall aim is to produce X-ray mirrors using thin, below 1mm, structures, comprising Ni mirror shells with bonded piezoelectric unimorph actuators, and with a target resolution of ~0.1 arcs. Such an optic would enable the design of an X-ray telescope with both a greater resolution and collective area than the best currently available by Chandra (0.5arcs) and XMM Newton (1650cm2) respectively. Lead zirconate titanate, PZT-based piezoelectric actuators are being developed in this programme to fit precisely the curved Ni mirror shell prototypes (100×300×0.4mm, radius of curvature 167mm). Viscous plastic processing has been chosen for the fabrication of net-shaped piezoelectric unimorph actuators 75×32×0.18mm, with radius of curvature conforming to those of the X-ray optic. Laser machining has been used for precisely controlling the actuator shape and for the definition of the multi-segment electrodes. Accurate control of the thickness, surface finish and curvature are the key factors to delivering satisfactory actuators. Results are presented concerning the fabrication and characterisation of the piezoelectric actuators, and the integration procedure on the nickel optic.

Active microstructured x-ray optical arrays

The UK Smart X-Ray Optics consortium is developing novel reflective adaptive/active x-ray optics for small-scale laboratory applications, including studies of radiation-induced damage to biological material. The optics work on the same principle as polycapillaries, using configured arrays of channels etched into thin silicon, such that each x-ray photon reflects at most once off a channel wall. Using two arrays in succession provides two reflections and thus the Abbe sine condition can be approximately satisfied, reducing aberrations. Adaptivity is achieved by flexing one or both arrays using piezo actuation, which can provide further reduction of aberrations as well as controllable focal lengths. Modelling of such arrays for used on an x-ray microprobe, based on a microfocus source with an emitting region approximately 1μm in diameter, shows that a focused flux approximately two orders of magnitude greater than possible with a zone plate of comparable focal length is possible, assuming that the channel wall roughness is less than about 2nm.