Charlotte J. Patterson

Developmental Pathways from Child Maltreatment to Peer Rejection

Using a prospective longitudinal design, rejection by peers, aggressive behavior, and social withdrawal were examined among a representative community sample of 107 maltreated children and an equal number of non-maltreated children. Results revealed that chronic maltreatment was associated with heightened risk of rejection by peers. Chronically maltreated children were more likely to be rejected by peers repeatedly across multiple years from childhood to early adolescence. Maltreatment chronicity was also associated with higher levels of childrens aggressive behavior, as reported by peers, teachers, and children themselves. Aggressive behavior accounted in large part for the association between chronic maltreatment and rejection by peers. Socially withdrawn behavior was associated with peer rejection, but did not account for the association between chronic maltreatment and peer rejection. These results held for both girls and boys, followed from childhood through early adolescence. Moreover, the links among chronic maltreatment, aggressive behavior, and peer rejection were already established by early school age. Implications of these results for developmental theory and intervention are discussed.

Children of Lesbian and Gay Parents

Does parental sexual orientation affect child development, and if so, how? Studies using convenience samples, studies using samples drawn from known populations, and studies based on samples that are representative of larger populations all converge on similar conclusions. More than two decades of research has failed to reveal important differences in the adjustment or development of children or adolescents reared by same-sex couples compared to those reared by other-sex couples. Results of the research suggest that qualities of family relationships are more tightly linked with child outcomes than is parental sexual orientation.

Developmental patterns of childhood peer relations as predictors of externalizing behavior problems

Developmental patterns of childhood peer relations were examined in the prediction of externalizing behavior problems in a 4-year multiple cohort longitudinal study. The participants consisted of 880 third- ( M = 9.3 years) through seventh- ( M = 13.4 years) grade students. Approximately half of the participants were female, one third were Black, and one third were from low-income homes. Developmental patterns of six indices of peer relations (including group acceptance, group rejection, having a reciprocated best friend, social support from best friend, conflict with best friend, and the aggressiveness of the best friend) were examined as predictors of aggression and delinquency using logistic regression analyses. Results suggest that both group and dyadic peer relations problems are risk factors for aggression and delinquency. Support was found for the cumulative risk model in the prediction of externalizing outcomes from multiple social risk factors that were additively associated with each negative outcome.

Environmental risk factors and children's achievement from middle childhood to early adolescence.

This study examined the long-term effects of low family income and stressful life events on math and reading achievement test percentile scores for 1,253 children. Four birth cohorts were followed for 2-4 years so that achievement across Grades 2 through 7 could be examined. Two types of analytic models, the multiplicative risk factor model and the cumulative risk model, were used. The moderating effects of ethnicity and gender were also explored. The results suggest that low income and minority ethnic status are significant risk factors for childrens achievement. No systematic evidence was found for a large impact of life events on reading achievement, and the effects of such events on math achievement appear to be best understood as part of the larger context of multiple risk factors during childhood. The findings suggest a differential impact of risk factors on math achievement compared with reading achievement.

Childhood peer rejection, aggression, withdrawal, and perceived competence as predictors of self-reported behavior problems in preadolescence

Childhood peer rejection, aggression, withdrawal, and perceived competence were compared as predictors of self-reported behavior problems. Peer sociometric status (Coie, Dodge, and Coppotelli, 1982), teacher ratings of behavior problems (Lorion, Cowen, & Caldwell, 1975), and perceived competence ratings (Harter, 1982) were obtained for 613 second-through fourth-grade children. Two years later, these students completed a modified version of the Youth Self-Report form (Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1987). Rejected children and neglected girls were more likely to have a self-reported nonspecific negative outcome than others. Neglected girls were at heightened risk for depression. A varied set of predictors obtained from different informants emerged for each sex for each of the specific self-reported outcomes of depression, unpopularity, delinquency, aggression, and self-destructive/identity problems. Results are discussed in terms of future directions for longitudinal research on the consequences of poor peer relationships in childhood.

Number Coding in Association Cortex of the Cat

In electrophysiological investigations of single neurons in cortical association response areas of the cat, cells have been encountered that appear to code the property of number. In a sequence of stimulus presentations, these cells characteristically discharge to a particular numbered stimulus in the series. This effect is independent of stimulus modality, intensity, and interstimulus interval; thus, the cells seem to be responding to the number of stimulus presentations.

Delinquency, victimization, and substance use among adolescents with female same-sex parents.

The question of whether parental sexual orientation has an impact on human development has important implications for psychological theories and for legal policy. This study examined associations among family type (same-sex vs. different-sex parents), family and relationship variables, substance use, delinquency, and victimization of adolescents. Participants included 44 adolescents living with female same-sex couples and 44 adolescents living with different-sex couples, matched on demographic characteristics and drawn from a national sample. Analyses indicated that adolescents were functioning well and that their adjustment was not associated with family type. Adolescents whose parents described closer relationships with them reported less delinquent behavior and substance use, suggesting that the quality of parent-adolescent relationships better predicts adolescent outcomes than does family type.

Parenting and Child Development in Adoptive Families: Does Parental Sexual Orientation Matter?

This study investigated child development and parenting in 106 families headed by 27 lesbian, 29 gay, and 50 heterosexual couples (80% White, M = 42 years) with young adopted children (41% White, M = 3 years). Parents and teachers reported that, on average, children were developing in typical ways. Measures of childrens adjustment, parenting approaches, parenting stress, and couple relationship adjustment were not significantly associated with parental sexual orientation. However, several family process variables—parenting stress, parenting approaches, and couple relationship adjustment—were found to be significantly associated with childrens adjustment, regardless of parental sexual orientation. Implications for understanding the role of gender and sexual orientation in parenting, as well as for legal and policy debates, are discussed.

Peer relations among adolescents with female same-sex parents.

This study examined associations among family type (same-sex vs. opposite-sex parents), adolescent gender, family and relationship variables, and the peer relations of adolescents. Participants included 44 adolescents parented by same-sex female couples and 44 adolescents parented by opposite-sex couples, matched on demographic characteristics and drawn from a national sample. On both self-reported and peer-reported measures of relations with peers, adolescents were functioning well, and the quality of their peer relations was not associated with family type. Regardless of family type, adolescents whose parents described closer relationships with them reported higher quality peer relations and more friends in school and were rated as more central in their friendship networks.

Aggression and peer victimization as predictors of self-reported behavioral and emotional adjustment

The relative contributions of aggression and victimization to the prediction of self-reported emotional and behavioral difficulties over and above self-reported prior problems were investigated in a 1-year longitudinal study. Fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-graders (N = 171) completed peer nominations of aggression and victimization as well as self-report measures of social, behavioral, and emotional problems at baseline and at 1-year follow-up. Peer aggression added to the prediction of externalizing problems, specifically, self-report of aggression and delinquency. In contrast, victimization by peers contributed to self-reported unpopularity but not depression. Victimization among girls was also predictive of subsequent self-reported delinquency. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings, as well as future directions for research, are discussed.