Samantha L. Tornello

Predictors of Parenting Stress Among Gay Adoptive Fathers in the United States

The authors examined correlates of parenting stress among 230 gay adoptive fathers across the United States through an Internet survey. As with previous research on adoptive parents, results showed that fathers with less social support, older children, and children who were adopted at older ages reported more parenting stress. Moreover, gay fathers who had a less positive gay identity also reported more parenting stress. These 4 variables accounted for 33% of the variance in parenting stress; effect sizes were medium to large. Our results suggest the importance of social support and a positive gay identity in facilitating successful parenting outcomes among gay adoptive fathers.

Timing of Parenthood and Experiences of Gay Fathers: A Life Course Perspective

How have men become gay fathers and how have their decisions about parenthood shaped their experiences? In this study of 739 gay fathers from across the United States, we explored generational changes in timing of parenthood and its association with identity development, sexual orientation disclosure, and social support. In this sample, most men over 50 years of age, but only a minority of younger men, reported that they had fathered children in the context of heterosexual relationships. In contrast, few of those over 50, but most of the younger men, reported that children joined their family in the context of a same-sex relationship. Moreover, timing of parenthood was the strongest predictor of the fathers’ experiences of sexual identity development, disclosure, and social support. The findings are consistent with the idea that a generational shift is underway and that this shift has important implications for gay fathers’ experiences.

Division of Labor and Relationship Quality among Male Same-Sex Couples Who Became Fathers via Surrogacy

Little is known about the family lives of male same-sex couples who become fathers via surrogacy. In a study of 52 male same-sex couples who became parents through surrogacy, we examined couples’ reported division of unpaid labor, relationship quality, and the associations between these two factors. We found these men reported dividing both household and child care labor in an egalitarian manner. They also reported wanting this to be the case. Biological linkages between a father and child were not associated with couples’ reports about how unpaid labor was divided. These male same-sex couples reported high levels of relationship quality overall, but those who experienced greater discrepancies between actual and ideal division of labor reported lower relationship quality, specifically less affectional expression and less relationship agreement between the partners. Our results add to the limited empirical research about male same-sex couples who become parents via surrogacy.

Gay Fathers in Mixed-Orientation Relationships: Experiences of Those Who Stay in Their Marriages and of Those Who Leave

Many gay men have become parents in the context of heterosexual relationships; ultimately, some separate from female partners while others stay with them. In this study, we compared the experiences of 110 formerly married gay fathers who were currently in relationships with men, 44 formerly married gay fathers who were currently single, and 14 gay fathers who remained married to women. In an Internet survey, we examined relationship satisfaction, parenting stress, sexual orientation disclosure, and gay identity among these men, all of whom had become fathers in the context of heterosexual relationships. Results showed that gay fathers who were currently married to women reported lower relationship satisfaction, affection, consensus, and lower overall dyadic adjustment in their current relationships. Formerly married gay fathers who were currently single or currently in relationships with male partners reported greater openness about their sexual identities than did still-married gay fathers. The men who were currently in relationships, however, did not report differences in relationship cohesion or parenting stress as a function of partners’ gender. In summary, self-identified gay men who were currently in relationships with women reported less openness about their sexual orientation and lower relationship satisfaction, but not more parenting stress than did formerly married gay fathers.

Relationship Quality among Lesbian Mothers in Planned Families

What factors are associated with relationship quality among lesbian mothers in planned families? The purpose of this Internet-based study was to examine correlates of relationship quality among same-sex female couples with children. Participants in this cross-sectional study included 134 mothers who self-identified as lesbian and who currently reside in the United States. All participants were in a committed relationship with another woman, had created families within that relationship, had at least one child under the age of 18 residing in their home, and only one partner from each couple participated. Results indicated that younger maternal age, greater familial social support, less job-family role strain, and more positive sexual identity were related to greater self-reported relationship quality. In addition, mothers who reported greater internal homonegativity and greater sexual identity confusion also reported being more dissatisfied with their current romantic relationship.

Sexual orientation and future parenthood in a 2011–2013 nationally representative United States sample.

Previous researchers have found evidence for differences in parenting goals between lesbian and gay people and their heterosexual peers. However, no previous research has quantified the parenting goals of bisexual people or evaluated parenting goals as a function of sexual partner gender. In addition, political and social climates for sexual minority people had improved rapidly since the last representative data on lesbian and gay peoples’ plans for parenthood were collected. We analyzed data from 3,941 childless lesbian, gay, bisexual, and heterosexual participants from the 2011–2013 National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG; United States Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, 2014), a nationally representative sample of United States residents aged 15 to 44 years. We found that statistically significant, within-gender sexual orientation differences in parenting plans persist, despite social and legal changes. Consistent with hypotheses, bisexual men’s parenting desires and intentions were similar to those of their heterosexual male peers and different from those of their gay male peers, while bisexual women’s reports were more mixed. Also consistent with hypotheses, the gender of the most recent sexual partner was a strong predictor of parenting goals. We discuss implications for mental and reproductive health-care providers, attorneys, social workers, and others who interact with sexual minority adults.

Envisioning future parenthood among bisexual, lesbian, and heterosexual women

For many individuals, becoming a parent is an important milestone. The current study examined attitudes and beliefs about parenting among a sample of 196 self-identified bisexual, lesbian, and heterosexual women. Results showed no differences by sexual orientation for women’s desires and intentions to have children, their idealization of parenthood, and perceptions of their parental self-efficacy (i.e., their ability to care for a child). In contrast, differences did emerge by sexual orientation in aspects such as partner expectations as well as professional intentions (i.e., wanting a permanent position before becoming a parent). Bisexual women tended to anticipate lower partner support compared to heterosexual women. Lesbian women, however, had a greater preference to work full-time during parenthood and wanted a permanent position before becoming a parent compared to both bisexual and heterosexual women. Implications are discussed of how bisexual women’s perceptions of parenthood are both similar to and distinct from lesbian and heterosexual women.

Does Sex Education Help Everyone?: Sex Education Exposure and Timing as Predictors of Sexual Health Among Lesbian, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Young Women

ABSTRACT Using data from 2002 to 2013 collections of the National Survey of Family Growth, we explored how exposure and timing of sex education were associated with sexual health outcomes of 5,141 women between the ages of 15 and 20 years. Consistent with previous literature, sexual minority (e.g., lesbian and bisexual) women reported engaging in sexual intercourse with a male partner earlier than their heterosexual peers. Sexual minority women were also more likely to receive sex education after already engaging in sexual intercourse. Exposure to sex education was associated with poorer outcomes—such as an increased number of male sexual partners and higher reports of pregnancy—for sexual minority women but not for their heterosexual peers. Receiving sex education before engaging in intercourse was associated with an increase in birth control use among bisexual participants. Therefore, school psychologists and counselors should promote inclusive sex education programs that fully address the needs of sexual minority youth.

Variation in behavioral engagement during an active learning activity leads to differential knowledge gains in college students

There are many pedagogical techniques used by educators in higher education; however, some techniques and activities have been shown to be more beneficial to student learning than others. Research has demonstrated that active learning and learning in which students cognitively engage with the material in a multitude of ways result in better understanding and retention. The aim of the present study was to determine which of three pedagogical techniques led to improvement in learning and retention in undergraduate college students. Subjects partook in one of three different types of pedagogical engagement: hands-on learning with a model, observing someone else manipulate the model, and traditional lecture-based presentation. Students were then asked to take an online quiz that tested their knowledge of the new material, both immediately after learning the material and 2 wk later. Students who engaged in direct manipulation of the model scored higher on the assessment immediately after learning the material compared with the other two groups. However, there were no differences among the three groups when assessed after a 2-wk retention interval. Thus active learning techniques that involve direct interaction with the material can lead to learning benefits; however, how these techniques benefit long-term retention of the information is equivocal.

Adult Children of Gay Fathers: Parent–Child Relationship Quality and Mental Health

ABSTRACT According to family systems theory, parent–child relationships are an important aspect of individual wellbeing. This study explored associations among parental disclosure, parent–child relationships, and wellbeing among 84 adult children with gay fathers. We explored associations between the adult children’s wellbeing and the children’s ages at sexual orientation disclosure, geographic distance, relationship quality, and closeness with their fathers. We found that when parental disclosure had occurred earlier in the adult child’s life, participants reported feeling closer to fathers in adulthood. Those who reported closer relationships with their fathers reported greater wellbeing. Using a stepwise regression, we found that adult children’s reports of closeness with fathers were the best predictors of adult children’s wellbeing.