Chihhao Fan

Nitrogenous disinfection byproducts formation and nitrogen origin exploration during chloramination of nitrogenous organic compounds

Formation of nitrogenous disinfection by-products (N-DBPs) of cyanogen chloride (CNCl), dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) and chloropicrin was evaluated during chloramination of several selected groups of nitrogenous organic (organic-N) compounds, including alpha-amino acids, amines, dipeptides, purines, and pyrimidines, The intermediates generated, reaction pathways, and nitrogen origin in N-DBPs were explored as well. CNCl was observed in chloramination of all tested organic-N compounds, with glycine giving the highest yields. DCAN was formed during chloramination of glutamic acid, cytosine, cysteine, and tryptophan. Chloramination of most organic-N compounds except for cysteine and glutamic acid generated chloropicrin. Aldehydes and nitriles were identified as the intermediates by negative mode electrospray ionization mass spectrometry during reactions of NH(2)Cl and organic-N compounds. Labeled (15)N-monochloramine ((15)NH(2)Cl) techniques showed that nitrogen in N-DBPs may originate from both NH(2)Cl and organic-N compounds and the nitrogen partition percentages vary as functions of reactants and pH.

Correlations between organic matter properties and DBP formation during chloramination.

Characteristics, including fluorescence intensity and specific UV absorbance (SUVA), of 16 organic matter (OM) fractions isolated from four OM samples plus a standard were analyzed and correlated with their specific disinfection by-product (DBP) and total organic halogen (TOX) formation after chloramination. These isolates were obtained from various water sources by using XAD-8/4 resins. Chloramination was achieved by adding 20mg/L monochloramine to a solution containing one OM isolate at 5mg/L DOC and buffered at pH 7.5 for 7 days. The fluorescence regional integration (FRI) method was used to analyze the fluorescence intensity data obtained from excitation-emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence spectroscopy, in which the EEM figure was divided into five regions and a normalized fluorescence volume was calculated. The cumulative normalized EEM volumes at regions II and IV (Phi(II+IV,)(n)) showed linear relationships with the yields of dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) (R(2)=0.60), chloroform (R(2)=0.42), dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) (R(2)=0.53), and TOX (R(2)=0.63). The SUVA values were found to have linear relationships with the yields of DCAA (R(2)=0.82), chloroform (R(2)=0.73), DCAN (R(2)=0.88) and TOX (R(2)=0.80), but not with the yields of cyanogen chloride (CNCl) and chloropicrin (CP). A modified model is proposed to simplify the reactions involving chloramination of OM fractions. FTIR spectra of OM before and after chloramination partially confirmed that ketone groups were reactive with monochloramine.

An innovative modeling approach using Qual2K and HEC-RAS integration to assess the impact of tidal effect on River Water quality simulation

Water quality modeling has been shown to be a useful tool in strategic water quality management. The present study combines the Qual2K model with the HEC-RAS model to assess the water quality of a tidal river in northern Taiwan. The contaminant loadings of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), ammonia nitrogen (NH(3)-N), total phosphorus (TP), and sediment oxygen demand (SOD) are utilized in the Qual2K simulation. The HEC-RAS model is used to: (i) estimate the hydraulic constants for atmospheric re-aeration constant calculation; and (ii) calculate the water level profile variation to account for concentration changes as a result of tidal effect. The results show that HEC-RAS-assisted Qual2K simulations taking tidal effect into consideration produce water quality indices that, in general, agree with the monitoring data of the river. Comparisons of simulations with different combinations of contaminant loadings demonstrate that BOD is the most import contaminant. Streeter-Phelps simulation (in combination with HEC-RAS) is also performed for comparison, and the results show excellent agreement with the observed data. This paper is the first report of the innovative use of a combination of the HEC-RAS model and the Qual2K model (or Streeter-Phelps equation) to simulate water quality in a tidal river. The combination is shown to provide an alternative for water quality simulation of a tidal river when available dynamic-monitoring data are insufficient to assess the tidal effect of the river.

Parathion degradation and its intermediate formation by Fenton process in neutral environment

The purpose of this study is to investigate parathion degradation by Fenton process in neutral environment. The initial parathion concentration for all the degradation experiments was 20 ppm. For hydrogen ion effect on Fenton degradation, the pH varied from 2 to 8 at the [H₂O₂] to [Fe²(+)] ratio of 2-2 mM, and the result showed pH 3 as the most effective environment for parathion degradation by Fenton process. Apparent degradation was also observed at pH 7. The subsequent analysis for parathion degradation was conducted at pH 7 because most environmental parathion exists in the neutral environment. Comparing the parathion degradation results at various Fenton dosages revealed that at Fe²(+) concentrations of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 mM, the Fenton reagent ratio ([H₂O₂]/[Fe²(+)]) for best-removing performance were found as 4, 3, and 2, resulting in the removal efficiencies of 19%, 48% and 36%, respectively. Further increase in Fe²(+) concentration did not cause any increase of the optimum Fenton reagent ratio for the best parathion removal. The result from LC-MS also indicated that hydroxyl radicals might attack the PS double bond, the single bonds connecting nitro-group, nitrophenol, or the single bond within ethyl groups of parathion molecules forming paraoxons, nitrophenols, nitrate/nitrite, thiophosphates, and other smaller molecules. Lastly, the parathion degradation by Fenton process at the presence of humic acids was investigated, and the results showed that the presence of 10 mg L⁻¹ of humic acids in the aqueous solution enhanced the parathion removal by Fenton process twice as much as that without the presence of humic acids.

Risk assessment of exposure to volatile organic compounds in groundwater in Taiwan

The purpose of this study is to assess the risks from exposure to 14 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in selected groundwater sites in Taiwan. The study employs the multimedia environment pollutant assessment system (MEPAS) model to calculate the specific non-cancer and cancer risks at an exposure level of 1 microg/L of each VOC for a variety of exposure pathways. The results show that the highest specific non-cancer risk is associated with water ingestion of vinyl chloride (VC) and that the highest specific cancer risk is associated with indoor breathing of VC. The three most important exposure pathways for risk assessment for both non-cancer and cancer risks are identified as water ingestion, dermal absorption when showering, and indoor breathing. Excess tetrachloroethylene (PCE), trichloroethylene (TCE), dichloroethylene (DCE), and VC are detected in the groundwater aquifers of one dump site and one factory. However, the study suggests that the pollutants in the contaminated groundwater aquifers do not travel extensively with groundwater flow and that the resulting VOC concentrations are below detectable levels for most of the sampled drinking-water treatment plants. Nevertheless, the non-cancer and cancer risks resulting from use of the contaminated groundwater are found to be hundred times higher than the general risk guidance values. To ensure safe groundwater utilisation, remediation initiatives for soil and groundwater are required. Finally, the study suggests that the current criteria for VOCs in drinking water might not be capable of ensuring public safety when groundwater is used as the primary water supply; more stringent quality criteria for drinking water are proposed for selected VOCs.

Combining risk assessment, life cycle assessment, and multi-criteria decision analysis to estimate environmental aspects in environmental management system

PurposeThe rating of environmental aspects plays a central role in the ISO 14001 environmental management system (EMS) and EU Eco-Management and Audit Scheme because it is the basis for the identification of an organizations environmental targets. The existing methods for the assessment of environmental aspects are grouped into three categories: risk assessment-based (RA-based), life cycle assessment (LCA)-based, and criterion-based methods. The first category accurately determines abnormal, or accidental aspects, as well as the probabilistic causality of aspect–pathway–receptor–impact relationships, but when evaluating environmental impact, it cannot provide a sound theoretical basis. The second category provides a theoretical foundation for the assessment of environmental impact, due to LCA, but cannot adequately represent the probabilistic aspect–pathway–receptor–impact relationship. The third category puts emphasis on the significance criteria, but the scoring methods are too simple. To combine the benefits of these three categories of research, this study proposes an integrated framework, combining RA-, LCA-, and criterion-based methods.Materials and methodsThe integrated framework incorporates LCA techniques for the identification of the causal linkage for aspect–pathway–receptor–impact, uses fuzzy logic to assess aspects, considers fuzzy conditions, in likelihood assessment, and employs a new multi-criteria decision analysis method—multi-criteria and multi-connection comprehensive assessment (MMCA)—to estimate significant aspects in EMS.Results and discussionThe proposed model is verified, using a real case study—a waste-recycling factory. The results show that this method successfully prioritizes the environmental aspects. Compared with criterion-based methods, the case study demonstrates that the proposed method provides a more solid theoretical basis.ConclusionsThis study integrates RA, LCA, and MMCA, to assess environmental aspects. The method identifies the probabilistic causality of aspect–pathway–receptor–impact relationships, enhances the theoretical foundations, and strengthens decision-making.

Comparative study of multimedia models applied to the risk assessment of soil and groundwater contamination sites in Taiwan

The purpose of this study was to explore the applicability of two popular multimedia risk assessment models to three different soil and groundwater contamination sites in Taiwan. The Multimedia Environmental Pollutant Assessment System (MEPAS) and the Multimedia Contaminant Fate, Transport, and Exposure Model (MMSOILS) were selected because of their wide application and use. Three soil and groundwater contamination sites in Taiwan were employed as illustrative examples in the comparison of these two risk assessment models. Three exposure pathways were investigated, categorized as oral ingestion, dermal absorption, and inhalation. The results show that MEPAS and MMSOILS calculated similar cancer risks and hazard quotients in general, but were different by two orders of magnitude in cancer risk estimates for sites contaminated by volatile organic compounds (VOC). Using MMSOILS may not be appropriate for risk assessment of such sites, as it does not account for indoor inhalation as a potential exposure pathway in its risk calculations. Water ingestion, dermal absorption when showering and indoor inhalation were the three most predominant contributing exposure pathways for risk development among sites contaminated by VOCs. On the other hand, crop and meat ingestion were more important exposure pathways in the context of sites with non-VOC pollutants, because these hydrophobic contaminants may be bio-accumulative in plants and animals, and consequently enter the human body via food chains.

Enhanced chemical oxygen demand removal and flux reduction in pulp and paper wastewater treatment using laccase-polymerized membrane filtration

The purpose of this present study is to investigate the removal efficiency of chemical oxygen demand (COD) from pulp and paper wastewater using laccase-polymerized membrane filtration process. The membranes with molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) of 5000 and 10,000, 30,000 and 54,000 were used in a cross-flow module to treat the pulp and paper wastewater containing high phenolic constituents and COD. With 2.98 IU/L of activated laccase applied at room temperature for 180 min, the contaminants in raw wastewater and second effluent were polymerized to form larger molecules with average molecular weight of 1300 and 900 Da (Dalton), respectively. With laccase polymerization prior to filtration, over 60% removals of COD by the four investigated membranes were observed, compared with low COD removal without laccase polymerization. Moreover, the addition of laccase resulted in 4-14% reduction of membrane permeability during the first 180 min filtration operation due to gel layer formation by the polymerization. No further flux decline was observed afterwards indicating the steady state was reached and the membranes could be used to remove the polymerized pollutants without significant fouling. The maximum apparent resistance occurrence for raw wastewater treated with laccase also supported the effectiveness for COD removal with laccase polymerization before membrane filtration. Additionally, pretreatment by inactivated laccase only caused further flux reduction without additional removal of COD.

Incorporating the LCIA concept into fuzzy risk assessment as a tool for environmental impact assessment

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a procedural tool for environmental management that identifies, predicts, evaluates and mitigates the environmental impact of development proposals. In the process of EIA, EIA reports, prepared by developers, are expected to delineate the environmental impact, but in practice they usually determine whether the amounts or concentrations of pollutants comply with the relevant standards. Actually, many analytical tools can improve the analysis of environmental impact in EIA reports, such as life cycle assessment (LCA) and environmental risk assessment (ERA). Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is one of steps in LCA that takes account of the causal relationships between environmental hazards and damage. Incorporating the concept of LCIA into an ERA as an integrated tool for the preparation of EIA reports extends the focus of the reports from the regulatory compliance of the environmental impact, to determine the significance of the environmental impact. Sometimes, when using integrated tools, it is necessary to consider fuzzy situations, because of a lack of sufficient information; therefore, so ERA should be generalized to a fuzzy risk assessment (FRA). Therefore, this paper proposes the integration of a LCIA and a FRA as an assessment tool for the preparation of EIA reports, whereby the LCIA clearly identifies the causal linkage for hazard–pathway–receptor–damage and then better explain the significance of the impact; furthermore, a FRA copes with fuzzy and probabilistic situations in the assessment of pollution severity and the estimation of exposure probability. Finally, the use of the proposed methodology is demonstrated in a case study of the expansion plan for the world’s largest plastics processing factory.

Establishment of turbidity forecasting model and early-warning system for source water turbidity management using back-propagation artificial neural network algorithm and probability analysis

The purpose of this study is to establish a turbidity forecasting model as well as an early-warning system for turbidity management using rainfall records as the input variables. The Taipei Water Source Domain was employed as the study area, and ANOVA analysis showed that the accumulative rainfall records of 1-day Ping-lin, 2-day Ping-lin, 2-day Fei-tsui, 2-day Shi-san-gu, 2-day Tai-pin and 2-day Tong-hou were the six most significant parameters for downstream turbidity development. The artificial neural network model was developed and proven capable of predicting the turbidity concentration in the investigated catchment downstream area. The observed and model-calculated turbidity data were applied to developing the turbidity early-warning system. Using a previously determined turbidity as the threshold, the rainfall criterion, above which the downstream turbidity would possibly exceed this respective threshold turbidity, for the investigated rain gauge stations was determined. An exemplary illustration demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed turbidity early-warning system as a precautionary alarm of possible significant increase of downstream turbidity. This study is the first report of the establishment of the turbidity early-warning system. Hopefully, this system can be applied to source water turbidity forecasting during storm events and provide a useful reference for subsequent adjustment of drinking water treatment operation.