Chris Cocklin

Notes on cumulative environmental change I : concepts and issues

Environmental impact assessment, as it has been practised generally, is limited in several ways. Two characteristics are cause for particular concern. The first is that it is a reactive process, rather than representing a proactive approach to environmental management. The second is that the project-based approach often means that the combined effects of two or more developments are often overlooked. Concepts developed under the heading of cumulative environmental change present some clues to the appropriate reform of impact assessment, particularly with respect to these two failings. An analysis of the concept is presented here and we discuss also some general issues that arise in respect to the assessment of cumulative change. The latter include boundary issues, ecological response characteristics, monitoring, socio-economic effects and issues in evaluation. A consideration of the institutional context for the management of cumulative change leads us to propose a regional approach, as opposed to project-based assessments. Links between cumulative effects assessment, state-of-the-environment reporting and planning for sustainability are explored.

Notes on cumulative environmental change II: a contribution to methodology

A concept of cumulative environmental change and its assessment provides the framework for some necessary reform of the approach to environmental impact assessment. In particular, the cumulative change concept points to a more proactive approach to environmental management and one that takes a broader view of impact. The assessment of cumulative change does require, however, that appropriate methods of analysis be developed. Existing evaluation methods are reviewed here as to their suitability for cumulative effects assessment. The paper then describes the use of a checklist and a geographic information system in the context of an experimental cumulative effects assessment, based on a small region of New Zealand. The experience suggests that these methods have a contribution to make to cumulative effects assessment.

Methodological Problems in Evaluating Sustainability

To embody the concept of sustainability in environmental management and development planning has latterly become recognized internationally as a priority for the future. Governments in many countries have consequently dedicated substantial funds to the task of defining planning and management strategies that are sustainable. Somewhat surprisingly, however, there has been very little attention given so far to establishing appropriate frameworks within which to evaluate the implications of planning and policy alternatives for sustainability. One of the most important questions to be addressed in evaluation exercises relates to the conflicts among different systems – economic, social, and biophysical – that may be realized in pursuing development options that may be sustainable. It is also important to establish whether the pursuit of sustainability may compromise the capability to fulfil other important societal goals and objectives. If the potential for these various conflicts can be discerned, then it may also be possible to identify development strategies that minimize conflict, while simultaneously achieving sustainability.

Ecosystem protection and management in New Zealand: a private land perspective

Abstract In many of the developed nations of the western world, the existing conservation estates are inadequate in both their extent and their representativeness. For improvement, it will be necessary to bring land in private ownership under formal protection. This then raises questions as to the attitudes and behaviour of private landowners in respect of conservation and also with respect to the appropriate planning mechanisms that might foster a private land conservation effort. This study of the Rodney Ecological District in New Zealand includes a description of planning mechanisms that are used to facilitate conservation on private land, focusing on a recently introduced subdivision incentive scheme. The results of a survey of landowners indicate that they are disposed towards conservation, but do not seem to equate conservation with legal protection. There is also a clear indication that those who have adopted the recently introduced subdivision incentive scheme have done so primarily for financial gain. The research suggests a need for a more pluralistic approach to planning for ecosystem protection. Efforts to improve conservation on private land could be informed by research that seeks better explanations of landowner behaviour, and that assists in identifying regional priorities for ecosystem protection and management.

Resource assessment for recreation and tourism: a New Zealand example

Abstract Under the Conservation Act 1987, the Department of conservation (DOC) is given responsibility to foster the use of New Zealands natural and historic resources for recreation and tourism, where this does not compromise inherent conservation values. To facilitate regional-level planning in respect of this mandate, the DOC sought to identify methods by which to assess the potential of the resource base to support recreation and tourist activities, incorporating also an evaluation of conservation values. There are two main methods: an assessment of recreation and tourism potential, which embodies both the consideration of scenic amenity and suitability for activity-based recreation, and an assessment of conservation values considering indigenous forest, wildlife and soil conservation requirements.

Contested rural futures: New Zealand's East Coast forestry project

Abstract The East Coast Forestry Project (ECFP) is a grant scheme introduced in 1991 to encourage the establishment of commercial forestry on erosion-prone land on the East Coast of the North Island, New Zealand. In that it is government subsidised, the project stands in stark contrast to New Zealands recent restructuring programme. This in itself has been a basis for contestation of the ECFP, but conflict over the scheme has extended to other issues as well. We draw upon ideas that have been developed in the literature on regulation as a basis for analysing the social contestation of the ECFP. Themes of particular importance include the geography of regulation, the role of local agency, and the significance of private regulation. The study draws also on concepts of place, particularly as a basis for interpreting the role of local agency in the contestation of the ECFP.

The use of geographical information systems for cumulative environmental effects assessment

Abstract In recognition of the need to develop approaches to environmental impact assessment that are both proactive and which take a wider view of environmental change and its causes, there has been increasing interest in the concept of cumulative environmental change and its assessment. We outline a definition and conceptual framework for the analysis of cumulative environmental change. The contribution of geographical information systems (GIS) to the assessment of cumulative effects is considered. The potential is then illustrated by reference to an example of the use of GIS in respect of cumulative effects assessment for a small area of New Zealand. The attendant problems of using GIS in this context are identified and discussed.

Environmental values, conflicts and issues in evaluation

SummaryThe existence of conflicts over the use of resources and with respect to the environment is widely acknowledged. The fields of resource management and environmental planning are, in fact, largely dedicated to identifying and resolving such conflicts. In this paper it is proposed that the sources of conflict can be seen in terms of the different values held by groups and individuals in relation to the environment and resource use. The discussion is also concerned with identifying more specifically the nature of conflicts that arise in relation to particular resource-use issues. A further important proposition developed is that in order to promote effective planning, rigorous and systematic methods of analysis are often required. Those best suited to evaluation in environmental and resources planning are capable of incorporating multiple metrics.

Large-scale energy projects in New Zealand: Whither social impact assessment?

Abstract The New Zealand response to the disruptions to oil supply and pricing during the 1970s included the exploitation of indigenous energy supplies through the development of large-scale projects. This was popularly referred to as the ‘Think Big’ strategy. The construction of the Motunui synthetic petrol plant and an expansion of the existing Marsden Point oil refinery were important initiatives within this programme. The national-level objectives of increased security of supply and relief of the balance-of-payments situation were given priority in evaluating the options for development. Regional economic and social concerns were largely overlooked, however. Evaluation of the decision-making environment, employing some concepts of organisational analysis, suggests several linked reasons for the lack of attention given to the social consequences of development. A review of the impacts actually realised in association with these projects reveals, on the one hand, that the influx of capital and workers provided some stimulus to the local economies. Yet, the projects also proved to have significant negative social and economic repercussions. An absence of forward planning meant that stress was placed on local services and there was a worsening of some economic conditions over the longer run. Recommendations for reform of the social impact assessment process in New Zealand refer to the need for greater attention to social impacts at each of the policy, programme and project levels of decision making, greater cooperation between agencies of government, and improved opportunities for public involvement.

In the aftermath of the energy crisis New Zealand's energy policy in the 1970s and 1980s

Abstract The past decade of energy policy in New Zealand is analysed with respect to the countrys dependence on imported oil, energy conservation programmes and the use of renewable energy resources. In all cases the country has failed to meet the objectives continually set forth in energy policy documents. The recent corporatization strategy of the government with respect to energy planning and management makes the possibility of achieving integrated energy planning quite dubious. Even recent studies calling for ’resilient’ energy plans have only added ambiguity to this situation. It is only through a coordinated and centralized strategy that these deficiencies can be overcome, which is quite the opposite of the present policy focus.