Chris J. Neal

Military traumatic brain and spinal column injury: a 5-year study of the impact blast and other military grade weaponry on the central nervous system.

BACKGROUND During the past 5 years of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), a significant majority of the severe closed and penetrating head trauma has presented for definitive care at the National Naval Medical Center (NNMC) in Bethesda, MD, and at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center (WRAMC) in Washington, DC. The purpose of this article is to review our experience with this population of patients. MATERIALS A retrospective review of all inpatient admissions from OIF was performed during a 5-year period (April 2003 to April 2008). Criteria for inclusion in this study included either a closed or penetrating head trauma suffered during combat operations in Iraq who subsequently received a neurosurgical evaluation at NNMC or WRAMC. Exclusion criteria included all patients for whom primary demographic data could not be verified. Primary outcome data included the type and mechanism of injury, Glasgow coma scale (GCS) and injury severity score at admission, and Glasgow outcome scale (GOS) at discharge, 6 months, and 1 to 2 years. RESULTS Five hundred thirteen consultations were performed by the neurosurgery service on the aforementioned population. Four hundred eight patients met the inclusion criteria for this study (401:7, male: female; 228 penetrating brain injury, 139 closed head injury, 41 not specified). Explosive blast injury (229 patients; 56%) constituted the predominant mechanism of injury. The rates of pulmonary embolism (7%), cerebrospinal fluid leak (8.6%), meningitis (9.1%), spinal cord or column injury (9.8%), and cerebrovascular injury (27%) were characterized. Cerebrospinal fluid leak, vasospasm, penetrating head injury, and lower presenting GCS were statistically associated with longer intensive care unit stays and higher presenting injury severity scores (p < 0.05). While presenting GCS 3-5 correlated with worsened short-term and long-term GOS scores (p < 0.001), almost half of these patients achieved GOS >or=3 at 1- to 2-year follow-up. Total mortality after reaching NNMC/WRAMC was 4.4%. CONCLUSIONS OIF has resulted in the highest concentration of severe closed and penetrating head trauma to return to NNMC and WRAMC since the Vietnam Conflict. Management scenarios were complex, incorporating principles designed to maximize outcomes in all body systems. Meaningful survival can potentially be achieved in a subset of patients with presenting GCS <or=5.

Early decompressive craniectomy for severe penetrating and closed head injury during wartime

OBJECT Decompressive craniectomy has defined this era of damage-control wartime neurosurgery. Injuries that in previous conflicts were treated in an expectant manner are now aggressively decompressed at the far-forward Combat Support Hospital and transferred to Walter Reed Army Medical Center (WRAMC) and National Naval Medical Center (NNMC) in Bethesda for definitive care. The purpose of this paper is to examine the baseline characteristics of those injured warriors who received decompressive craniectomies. The importance of this procedure will be emphasized and guidance provided to current and future neurosurgeons deployed in theater. METHODS The authors retrospectively searched a database for all soldiers injured in Operations Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom between April 2003 and October 2008 at WRAMC and NNMC. Criteria for inclusion in this study included either a closed or penetrating head injury suffered during combat operations in either Iraq or Afghanistan with subsequent neurosurgical evaluation at NNMC or WRAMC. Exclusion criteria included all cases in which primary demographic data could not be verified. Primary outcome data included the type and mechanism of injury, Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score and injury severity score (ISS) at admission, and Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) score at discharge, 6 months, and 1-2 years. RESULTS Four hundred eight patients presented with head injury during the study period. In this population, a total of 188 decompressive craniectomies were performed (154 for penetrating head injury, 22 for closed head injury, and 12 for unknown injury mechanism). Patients who underwent decompressive craniectomies in the combat theater had significantly lower initial GCS scores (7.7 +/- 4.2 vs 10.8 +/- 4.0, p < 0.05) and higher ISSs (32.5 +/- 9.4 vs 26.8 +/- 11.8, p < 0.05) than those who did not. When comparing the GOS scores at hospital discharge, 6 months, and 1-2 years after discharge, those receiving decompressive craniectomies had significantly lower scores (3.0 +/- 0.9 vs 3.7 +/- 0.9, 3.5 +/- 1.2 vs 4.0 +/- 1.0, and 3.7 +/- 1.2 vs 4.4 +/- 0.9, respectively) than those who did not undergo decompressive craniectomies. That said, intragroup analysis indicated consistent improvement for those with craniectomy with time, allowing them, on average, to participate in and improve from rehabilitation (p < 0.05). Overall, 83% of those for whom follow-up data are available achieved a 1-year GOS score of greater than 3. CONCLUSIONS This study of the provision of early decompressive craniectomy in a military population that sustained severe penetrating and closed head injuries represents one of the largest to date in both the civilian and military literature. The findings suggest that patients who undergo decompressive craniectomy had worse injuries than those receiving craniotomy and, while not achieving the same outcomes as those with a lesser injury, did improve with time. The authors recommend hemicraniectomy for damage control to protect patients from the effects of brain swelling during the long overseas transport to their definitive care, and it should be conducted with foresight concerning future complications and reconstructive surgical procedures.

Techniques for operative correction of proximal junctional kyphosis of the upper thoracic spine.

Study Design. Retrospective study of a consecutive series of patients treated for proximal junctional kyphosis (PJK) of the upper thoracic and cervicothoracic spine. Objective. To discuss corrective techniques for the management of symptomatic kyphosis at the junction of fused and mobile segments of the upper thoracic and cervicothoracic spine in patients who complain of pain, neurological deficit, ambulatory difficulty, and/or social isolation. Summary of Background Data. PJK is an unfortunately common, but important, complication seen in long instrumented fusions to the upper thoracic and cervicothoracic spine. Although often asymptomatic, its incidence and prevalence warrant a discussion on treatment options for symptomatic patients. Methods. After the institutional review board confirmed approval, we retrospectively analyzed patients who received treatment of PJK from 2003 to 2009. Segmental instrumentation and intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring were used in all patients. Data acquisition was performed by reviewing electronic medical records and radiographs. Inclusion criteria were patients who underwent surgical correction of PJK of the cervicothoracic and upper thoracic spine and had more than 2-year follow-up. Preoperative lumbar lordosis, preoperative thoracic kyphosis, pre- and postoperative sagittal balance, and sagittal proximal junctional Cobb angle were obtained. All corrective procedures were performed in 2 stages, each patient receiving cervical traction between cases. Results. Inclusion criteria were met in 7 patients (5 women and 2 men), with mean age of 55 years (range, 18–80 years). Six patients received multilevel Smith-Petersen osteotomies, with 2 patients receiving rib osteotomies, and 1 patient received a vertebral column resection. The mean preoperative and postoperative proximal junctional Cobb angles were 45° (range, 14°–89.7°) and 14° (range, 3.0°–38.0°), respectively. The mean degree of correction was 31° (range, 11°–79.2°). All patients had maintained or improved sagittal balance. No patient sustained a temporary or permanent neurological deficit after correction related to surgery. All patients had 2-year follow-up, and there were no mortalities. Conclusion. For a selected cohort of patients who develop PJK of the upper thoracic and cervicothoracic spine, osteotomies, cervical traction, and intraoperative manual reduction provide a significant improvement of proximal junctional Cobb angles. To our knowledge, this is the first study to address treatment for symptomatic patients with this condition.

Long-term outcomes of combat casualties sustaining penetrating traumatic brain injury

BACKGROUND Previous studies have documented short-term functional outcomes for patients sustaining penetrating brain injuries (PBIs). However, little is known regarding the long-term functional outcome in this patient population. Therefore, we sought to describe the long-term functional outcomes of combat casualties sustaining PBI. METHODS Prospective data were collected from 2,443 patients admitted to a single military institution during an 8-year period from 2003 to 2011. PBI was identified in 137 patients and constitute the study cohort. Patients were stratified by age, Injury Severity Score (ISS) and admission Glasgow Coma Scale (aGCS) score. Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) scores were calculated at discharge, 6 months, 1 year and 2 years. Patients with a GOS score of 4 or greater were considered to have attained functional independence (FI). RESULTS The mean (SD) age of the cohort was 25 (7) years, mean (SD) ISS was 28 (9), and mean (SD) aGCS score was 8.8 (4.0). PBI mechanisms included gunshot wounds (31%) and blast injuries (69%). Invasive intracranial monitoring was used in 80% of patients, and 86.9% of the study cohort underwent neurosurgical intervention. Complications included cerebrospinal fluid leak (8.3%), venous thromboembolic events (15.3%), meningitis (24.8%), systemic infection (27.0%), and mortality (5.8%). The cohort was stratified by aGCS score and showed significant improvement in functional status when mean discharge GOS score was compared with mean GOS score at 2 years. For those with aGCS score of 3 to 5 (2.3 [0.9] vs. 2.9 [1.4], p < 0.01), 32% progressed to FI. For those with aGCS score of 6 to 8 (3.1 [0.7] vs. 4.0 [1.2], p < 0.0001), 63% progressed to FI. For those with aGCS score of 9 to 11 (3.3 [0.5] vs. 4.3 [0.8], p < 0.0001), 74% progressed to FI. For those with aGCS score of 12 to 15 (3.9 [0.7] vs. 4.8 [0.4], p < 0.00001), 100% progressed to FI. CONCLUSION Combat casualties with PBI demonstrated significant improvement in functional status up to 2 years from discharge, and a large proportion of patients sustaining severe PBI attained FI. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Epidemiologic study, level III.

Resident learning curve for minimal-access transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion in a military training program.

OBJECT Minimal-access transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF) has gained popularity as a method of achieving interbody fusion via a posterior-only approach with the aim of minimizing injury to adjacent tissue. While many studies have reported successful outcomes, questions remain regarding the potential learning curve for successfully completing this procedure. The goal of this study, based on a single residents experience at the only Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education-approved neurosurgical training center in the US military, was to determine if there is in fact a significant learning curve in performing a minimal-access TLIF. METHODS The authors retrospectively reviewed all minimal-access TLIFs performed by a single neurosurgical resident between July 2006 and January 2008. Minimal-access TLIFs were performed using a tubular retractor inserted via a muscle-dilating exposure to limit approach-related morbidity. The accuracy of screw placement and operative times were assessed. RESULTS A single resident/attending team performed 28 minimal-access TLIF procedures. In total, 65 screws were placed at L-2 (1 screw), L-3 (2 screws), L-4 (18 screws), L-5 (27 screws), and S-1 (17 screws) from the residents perspective. Postoperative CTs were reviewed to determine the accuracy of screw placement. An accuracy of 95.4% (62 of 65) properly placed screws was noted on postoperative imaging. Two screws (at L-5 in the patient in Case 17 and at S-1 in the patient in Case 9) were lateral, and no revision was needed. One screw (at L-4 in Case 24) was 1 mm medial without symptoms or the need for revision. In evaluating the operative times, 2 deformity cases (Grade III spondylolisthesis) were excluded. The average operating time per level in the remaining 26 cases was 113.25 minutes. The average time per level for the first 13 cases was 121.2 minutes; the amount of time decreased to 105.3 minutes for the second group of 13 cases (p = 0.25). CONCLUSIONS In summary, minimal-access TLIF can be safely performed in a training environment without a significant complication rate due to the expected learning curve.

Paradoxical herniation in wartime penetrating brain injury with concomitant skull-base trauma.

AbstractA case of the syndrome of the trephined progressing to paradoxical herniation is presented in a patient with a penetrating brain injury, postdecompressive craniectomy, and a delayed cerebral spinal fluid leak from a skull base defect. The patient had a penetrating head trauma from a high-velocity ballistic projectile during military wartime operations. The patient’s clinical course, which demonstrates a rare presentation of central sleep apnea syndrome or Ondine’s curse, is reviewed. Radiographic imaging includes sequential computed tomography (CT) scans with and without intrathecal contrast. Medical management was directed at increasing the intracranial pressures (ICPs) by placing the patient into Trendelenburg position and increasing hydration. Surgical intervention involved correction of the skull base defect by intranasal endoscopic repair. A literature review of paradoxical herniation and delayed neurologic decline in postcraniectomy patients is conducted, and the surgical and neurocritical care management is discussed.

Early venous thromboembolism chemoprophylaxis in combat-related penetrating brain injury

OBJECTIVE Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is independently associated with deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). Given the numerous studies of civilian closed-head injury, the Brain Trauma Foundation recommends venous thromboembolism chemoprophylaxis (VTC) after severe TBI. No studies have specifically examined this practice in penetrating brain injury (PBI). Therefore, the authors examined the safety and effectiveness of early VTC after PBI with respect to worsening intracranial hemorrhage and DVT or PE. METHODS The Kandahar Airfield neurosurgery service managed 908 consults between January 2010 and March 2013. Eighty of these were US active duty members with PBI, 13 of whom were excluded from analysis because they presented with frankly nonsurvivable CNS injury or they died during initial resuscitation. This is a retrospective analysis of the remaining 67 patients. RESULTS Thirty-two patients received early VTC and 35 did not. Mean time to the first dose was 24 hours. Fifty-two patients had blast-related PBI and 15 had gunshot wounds (GSWs) to the head. The incidence of worsened intracranial hemorrhage was 16% after early VTC and 17% when it was not given, with the relative risk approaching 1 (RR = 0.91). The incidence of DVT or PE was 12% after early VTC and 17% when it was not given (RR = 0.73), though this difference was not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS Early VTC was safe with regard to the progression of intracranial hemorrhage in this cohort of combat-related PBI patients. Data in this study suggest that this intervention may have been effective for the prevention of DVT or PE but not statistically significantly so. More research is needed to clarify the safety and efficacy of this practice.

Symptomatic Lumbar Osteochondroma Treated via a Multidisciplinary Military Surgical Team: Case Report and Review of the Literature

The authors describe the case of a giant osteochondroma emanating from the L5 vertebral body and extending into the retroperitoneum of a 40-year-old man, causing low back pain. Osteochondromas are benign bony tumors that typically occur within the appendicular skeleton, although in the sporadic form, up to 4% occur in the spine. A review of the English language literature has returned 44 cases of lumbar osteochondroma, including the present example. The lesions were sporadic in 81% of cases. Mean age of presentation overall is 39.5 years, with a mean age of 18.4 years (range 8-34 years) for hereditary cases and 45.7 years (range 11-81 years) for solitary lesions. Of the instances where gender was reported, 64% were male. The most common level of origin was L4 (38%). The most common anatomic site of origin was the inferior articular process (one-third). Of those lesions treated operatively, 46% underwent simple decompression, with 22% requiring decompression and fusion. This particular lesion was resected via a transperitoneal approach performed by a multidisciplinary team of neurosurgeons, vascular surgeons, and urologists. The bony tumor measured 6.1 × 7.8 × 7.7 cm. Removal of the lesion resulted in a significant improvement of the patients symptoms.

Cervical and Thoracolumbar Spine Injury Evaluation, Transport, and Surgery in the Deployed Setting

This Cervical and Thoracolumbar Spine Injury Evaluation, Transport, and Surgery Clinical Practice Guideline (CPG) is designed to provide guidance to the deployed provider when they are treating a combat casualty who has sustained a spine or spinal cord injury. The CPG objective for the treatment and the movement of these patients is to maintain spinal stability through transport, perform decompression when urgently needed, achieve definitive stabilization when appropriate, avoid secondary injury, and prevent deterioration of the patients neurological condition. Thorough and accurate documentation of the patients neurological examination is crucial to ensure appropriate management decisions are made as the patient transits through the evacuation system. The use of this CPG should be in conjunction with good clinical judgment.

Neurosurgery and Medical Management of Severe Head Injury

Management of the patient with moderate to severe brain injury in any environment can be time consuming and resource intensive. In the austere or hostile environment, the challenges to deliver care to this patient population are magnified. These guidelines have been developed by acknowledging commonly recognized recommendations for neurosurgical and neuro-critical care patients and augmenting those evaluations and interventions based on the experience of neurosurgeons, trauma surgeons, and intensivists who have delivered care during recent coalition conflicts.