Christian Bauer

Biological Significance of Sialic Acids

Sialic acids are essential constituents of many glycoproteins, glycopeptides and glycolipids. This widespread occurrence in glycoconjugates of different origin indicates that a variety of biological functions should be associated with this sugar. There are vahd indications that siahc acids influence or even determine the recognition of low and high molecular-weight compounds, the action of certain hormones, physicochemical and catalytic properties of enzymes, hemostasis, cellular adhesiveness, antigenicity, transport processes and synaptic transmission. Despite this apparently heterogenous spectrum of biological actions, four main functions—according to the concept of Schauer (1982)—can be attributed to sialic acid: (1) Endowment of glycoconjugates and cellular membranes with a negative charge, (2) Influence on the macromolecular structure of certain glycoproteins, (3) Information transfer, (4) Protection of glycoconjugates and cells from recognition and degradation. This rather physicochemical classification could be of use when starting to elucidate the biological significance of sialoglycoconjugates. Reviews on siahc acids have recently been published by Rosenberg and Schengrund 1976, Neufeld and Ashwell 1980, and Schauer 1982. The aim of this contribution, however, is to emphazise the important role of sialic acids in the occurrence of pathobiochemical alterations found in animals and human beings.

Effects of Endothelin Receptor Antagonists on the Progression of Diabetic Nephropathy

Background: Diabetic nephropathy is the leading cause of end-stage renal disease in European countries and is associated with an enhanced renal synthesis of endothelin (ET)-1. ETs are – beside its potent vasoconstrictor properties – very potent profibrotic acting paracrine hormones especially in the kidney. Methods: We analyzed in rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes the effects of an ETA-type (ETA) receptor antagonist (LU 135252) in comparison to a combined ETA/ETB receptor antagonist (LU 224332) on the expression of interstitial and glomerular collagen type I, III and IV as well as on fibronectin and laminin by quantitative immunohistochemistry using a computer-aided image analysis system. Global glomerular matrix deposition was analyzed after PAS staining. In addition to the morphometric examination of the kidneys, we also investigated GFR, urinary albumin and total protein excretion. The diabetic rats were treated for 36 weeks. Results: Treatment with either LU 135252 or LU 224332 normalized the amount of PAS-positive material within the glomeruli. The expression of glomerular fibronectin and type IV collagen was increased 36 weeks after induction of diabetes. The overexpression of these two matrix proteins within the glomeruli of diabetic rats was completely abolished by both ET receptor antagonists, whereas protein excretion was only reduced by about 50% as compared to diabetic rats without treatment. Conclusion: The present study indicates that ETA receptor antagonists as well as combined ETA/ETB receptor antagonists reduce proteinuria and completely normalize the renal matrix protein expression in hyperglycemic rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes. The antifibrotic effect seems to be mediated via the ETA receptor. ET receptor antagonists might be a new approach in the treatment of diabetic nephropathy.

Characterization of the Renal Phenotype of Transgenic Rats Expressing the Human Endothelin-2 Gene

We have previously established a transgenic rat model termed TGR(hET-2)37 overexpressing the human endothelin-2 (ET-2) gene with high renal transgene expression. This renal overexpression is of pathophysiological interest because a long-term activated paracrine renal endothelin system has been implicated in chronic renal failure due to progressive glomerular injury. Therefore, our aim in the present study was to analyze renal transgene expression in detail and address the question of whether transgene expression causes phenotypic and functional changes in the kidney. We used reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and in situ hybridization techniques for transgene expression analysis. Tissue ET-2 concentrations were measured with a specific radioimmunoassay. For histological evaluation of renal tissue, all samples were subjected to hematoxylin-eosin and periodic acid-Schiff staining. Renal tissue ET-2 concentrations were significantly increased in TGR(hET-2)37 rats. Using in situ hybridization, we found that the human ET-2 gene was almost exclusively expressed within the glomeruli. The glomerular transgene expression resulted in a significantly increased glomerular injury score and likewise in a significantly increased protein excretion, whereas glomerular filtration rate was not altered. Blood pressure was similar in TGR(hET-2)37 rats and age-matched controls, suggesting that the local changes in the kidney were correlated with paracrine endothelin actions. In conclusion, our study revealed that the major renal expression site of the human ET-2 transgene in TGR(hET-2)37 rats was within the glomeruli and caused the development of glomerulo-sclerosis with significantly increased protein excretion that is independent of blood pressure. We suggest that TGR(hET-2)37 rats are a new monogenetic animal model for study of the paracrine renal endothelin system and its involvement in renal pathophysiology.

Function and expression of endothelin receptor subtypes in the kidneys of spontaneously hypertensive rats.

OBJECTIVEnThe renal endothelin system has been implicated in the development and maintenance of hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). However, little is known about the function and cellular distribution of endothelin receptor subtypes in the kidneys of SHR.nnnMETHODSnWe analyzed the expression of endothelin receptor subtypes in the kidneys of 16-week-old SHR using Scatchard analysis, receptor autoradiography, Northern blot analysis and in situ hybridization. Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY) served as controls. Furthermore, we investigated the effects of the mixed (A/B) endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan and the ETA receptor antagonist BQ 123 on mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), renal blood flow (RBF) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in conscious chronically instrumented rats.nnnRESULTSnIn SHR, we found by receptor autoradiography an overexpression of the endothelin A receptor (ETA) in the glomeruli (2.2 +/- 0.4-fold; P < 0.05) and smooth muscle cells of intrarenal arteries (1.9 +/- 0.2-fold; P < 0.05) compared to age-matched WKY. In addition, our study revealed a pronounced upregulation of endothelin B receptor (ETB) in the glomeruli of SHR (5.6 +/- 0.8-fold; P < 0.01). Blockade of endothelin receptors in SHR with bosentan (A and B receptor blockade) as well as with BQ 123 (A receptor blockade) led to a significant decrease in MAP (-18.6 +/- 2.1 and -19 +/- 1.3 mmHg, respectively; P < 0.05 in both cases) and a significant increase in RBF (+2.8 +/- 0.5 and +3.1 +/- 0.37 ml/min, respectively; P < 0.05 in both cases). The blockade of both ETA and ETB by bosentan had no further effect on MAP reduction or RBF increase in SHR compared to the ETA blockade by BQ 123. The ETA antagonist BQ 123 had no effect on GFR either in SHR or in WKY, whereas the combined blockade of ETA and ETB by bosentan significantly decreased GFR in SHR by about 50% but not in WKY.nnnCONCLUSIONSnOur data demonstrated a correlation between the overexpression of vascular ETA receptors and the pronounced upregulation of glomerular ETB receptors in the kidneys of SHR and their impact on the regulation of renal blood flow, glomerular filtration rate and blood pressure in these animals.

Sialic acid metabolism is involved in the regulation of gene expression during neuronal differentiation of PC12 cells

Sialic acid precursors are mediators of the sialic acid pathway. In this manuscript we present evidence that the application of sialic acid a precursor modulates gene expression and cell differentiation. The concept that sugars are involved in cellular transcription was first proposed by Jacob and Monod nearly 40xa0years ago studying the regulation of the lac-operon in prokaryotes. Surprisingly, these findings have never been transferred to eukaryotic systems. For our studies we have chosen PC12 cells. PC12-cells differentiate after application of NGF into a neuron-like phenotype. It is shown that treatment of PC12 cells with two different sialic acid precursors N-acetyl- or N-propanoylmannosamine, without application of NGF also induces neurite outgrowth. Moreover, the PC12 cells show the same morphology as the NGF-treated cells. Surprisingly, after application of both sialic acid precursors the phosphorylation and translocation of erk1/2 into the nucleus are activated, thus influencing the expression of genes involved in the differentiation of cells, such as the transcription factor c-Jun or TOAD-64/Ulip/CRMP (Turned ON After Division, 64xa0kd/ unc-33-like phosphoprotein/Collapsin Response Mediator Protein). These are the first experimental data showing that the sialic acid metabolism is closely associated with signal transduction and regulation of neuronal differentiation.

Intracellular distribution of endothelin-1 receptors in rat liver cells

We studied the binding of (125I)-endothelin-1 as well as that of the vasopressin analogue (125I)-[8-phenylpropionyl]-LVP to purified plasma membranes, Golgi cisternae and cell nuclei from rat liver. Cell organelles were isolated by differential centrifugation and discontinuous sucrose gradients. Endothelin-1 exhibited specific binding to plasma membranes, Golgi cisternae and nuclei, while the binding of (125I)-[8-phenylpropionyl]-LVP was restricted to the plasma membranes. The number of receptors (Bmax) and the binding constants (Kd) were determined by Scatchard analysis of competition binding studies. In all cases only one class of Et-1 binding sites could be detected. The presence of Et-1 receptors on the Golgi complex either indicates that the receptor is glycosylated within the cisternae or alternatively, there exists a recycling pathway. The unexpected finding of Et-1 receptors on highly purified nuclei suggests that this peptide may exert part of its biological functions intracellularly via the nucleus.

Paracrine renal endothelin system in rats with liver cirrhosis

1 Liver cirrhosis was induced in rats by CCl4 administration. We analysed the expression of endothelin receptor subtypes in the renal cortex and medulla using Scatchard analysis and receptor autoradiography, and measured plasma as well as renal‐tissue endothelin‐1 concentrations using a specific radioimmunoassay. Furthermore, we analysed the effects of the non‐selective (A/B) endothelin receptor antagonist, bosentan (6 and 100 mg kg−1 day−1) on mean arterial blood pressure, water and sodium excretion and glomerular filtration rate. 2 Our study revealed an overexpression of the endothelin B receptor (ETB) in the renal medulla of rats with liver cirrhosis (Cir: 2775 ± 299 fmol mg−1; Con:1695 ± 255 fmol mg−1; n = 8; means ± s.d., P < 0.01), whereas the density of ETB in the cortex and the endothelin A receptor (ETA) in the cortex and medulla were similar in both cirrhotic and control rats. Receptor autoradiography showed that the upregulation of medullary ETB in cirrhotic rats was due to an upregulation of ETB in the inner medullary collecting duct cells. 3 The tissue endothelin‐1 concentrations were increased in the renal medulla of cirrhotic rats (Cir:271 ± 68 pg g−1wet wt.; Con: 153 ± 36 pg g−1 wet wt., n = 8; means ± s.d., P < 0.01). 4 The glomerular filtration rate was slightly decreased in cirrhotic rats but not altered after bosentan treatment in either cirrhotic or control rats. Bosentan decreased sodium excretion to a similar extent in both cirrhotic and control rats, whereas water excretion was significantly reduced by both dosages of bosentan in cirrhotic rats only (Cir + vehicle: 12.5 ± 0.62 ml day−1, Cir + 6 mg kg−1 day−1 bosentan: 8.6 ± 1.0 ml day−1; Cir + 100 mg kg−1 day−1 bosentan:7.4 ± 0.6 ml day−1; n = 10; means ± s.e.mean). 5 We therefore suggest that the upregulation of the medullary ETB in cirrhotic rats is involved in the regulation of water excretion in rats with CCl4‐induced liver cirrhosis.

Endothelin B receptor-deficient mice develop endothelial dysfunction independently of salt loading.

Background Rodents without a functional endothelin B (ETB) receptor develop salt-sensitive hypertension. The underlying mechanisms, however, are so far unknown. The ETB receptor is involved in endothelial function by modulating the activity of the endothelial nitric oxide synthesis as well as contributing to the control of endothelial prostacyclin synthesis. In the present study, we analysed whether salt alters endothelial function in rescued ETB receptor-deficient mice. We used mice with a rescue of the lethal phenotype of an ETB knockout. These mice were generated by crossbreeding ETB–/– mice with dopamine-hydroxylase ETB transgenic mice. Methods Adult rescued ETB-deficient mice were kept in parallel with wild-type control animals for 15 days on standard (0.2% NaCl) or salt-enriched (4% NaCl) chow, respectively. Systolic blood pressure was measured by the tail cuff method and endothelium-dependent and endothelium-independent vascular function was assessed in isolated aortic rings under isometric conditions. Results Systolic blood pressure increased on salt-enriched chow in ETB receptor-deficient mice (166 ± 12 mmHg), but neither in wild-type mice on high-salt diet (128 ± 11 mmHg; P < 0.05) nor in ETB receptor-deficient mice on standard chow. The heart rate was similar in all groups at any point of time. Endothelium-dependent relaxation was impaired in ETB receptor-deficient mice (74 ± 3 versus 96 ± 5% of preconstriction for wild-type mice; P < 0.05) and was not significantly affected by a salt-enriched diet. Endothelium-independent relaxation was similar among all groups. Contractions to endothelin-1 were not significantly influenced by preincubation with the ETB receptor antagonist BQ-788, but were completely blunted by preincubation with the ETA receptor antagonist BQ-123 in all animals. Conclusion Rescued ETB receptor-deficient mice develop salt-sensitive hypertension. Nevertheless, in this animal model of ETB receptor deficiency, endothelial function is impaired independent of salt-enriched diet or hypertension. This indicates that, in this model, salt-induced hypertension is not mediated by endothelial dysfunction.

Distribution of endothelin receptor subtypes in the rat kidney. Renal and haemodynamic effects of the mixed (A/B) endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan.

The paracrine renal endothelin system has been implicated in acute and chronic kidney diseases. However, there are only few data about the expression of endothelin receptor subtypes and their impact on renal function in the normal rat kidney. Therefore, we analyzed the age-dependent expression of endothelin receptors (endothelin receptor A and B) using Scatchard analysis, in vitro and in vivo receptor autoradiography. Furthermore, we investigated the effects of the mixed (A/B) endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan on haemodynamic and renal function in conscious chronically instrumented rats. The renal endothelin receptor A and endothelin receptor B expression is age-dependent. The relative amount of endothelin receptor A significantly decreased with age, whereas the endothelin receptor B significantly increased with age. Compared to the other renal structures, a high endothelin receptor density (endothelin receptor B >> endothelin receptor A) was seen in the renal tubules and even more in the glomeruli. Bosentan blocks both the pressor and depressor response of endothelin. Blocking of both endothelin receptor subtypes using bosentan without application of endothelin, on the other hand, did not alter blood pressure, heart rate, renal blood flow, water excretion or glomerular filtration rate, but significantly decreased sodium excretion.

N-Propionylmannosamine-induced over-expression and secretion of thioredoxin leads to neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells

The function of the central nervous system largely depends on growth and differentiation (neurite outgrowth) of neural cells and it is well established that growth factors, especially nerve growth factor NGF stimulate neurite outgrowth. However, additional factors are implicated in this process notably the redox state of the cells. For the first time we could demonstrate that the application of recombinant thioredoxin stimulates neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells to the same extend as NGF. Thioredoxin, a small redox protein is a major player in the cellular protein reduction system. An increased expression and secretion of thioredoxin is achieved by the application of the novel sialic acid precursor N-propionylmannosamine (ManNProp). From earlier studies it is known that this N-acylmannosamine analog stimulates significantly the neurite outgrowth in cell cultures. This finding would give new insights into the mechanism of the nerve-stimulatory action of ManNProp and demonstrates the novel role of thioredoxin during the regulation of nerve growth, encouraging further studies.