Christian F Swann

Walking the Walk: A Phenomenological Study of Long Distance Walking

Evidence suggests that regular walking can elicit significant psychological benefits, although little evidence exists concerning long distance walking. The purpose of this study was to provide detailed accounts of the experiences of long distance walkers. Phenomenological interviews were conducted with six long distance walkers. Data were transcribed verbatim before researchers independently analyzed the transcripts. Participants reported a cumulative effect with positive feelings increasing throughout the duration of the walk. Long distance walking elicited positive emotions, reduced the effects of life-stress, and promoted an increased sense of well-being and personal growth. Results are aligned to theories and concepts from positive psychology.

An inductive exploration into the flow experiences of European Tour golfers

This study explored perceptions regarding the experience of flow in elite golf; a sport which is different to those studied previously due to its self-paced, stop-start nature. In-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 European Tour golfers. Whereas the majority of previous studies have deductively coded data into Csikszentmihalyi’s dimensions, the data in this study were analysed inductively. Thirteen categories were generated which described the flow experiences of these golfers, and these were compared with the original flow dimensions after analysis. In contrast to previous understanding, these golfers reported being aware that they were in flow as it occurred, and seemingly were able to manage their flow experiences. A category describing altered cognitive and kinaesthetic perceptions was also generated which was not accounted for in the existing flow framework, while the participants also suggested that flow was observable (e.g. through changes in behaviour). Findings are discussed in relation to the existing literature, and recommendations made for future research including possible revisions to the flow framework to better describe this experience within golf and other sporting contexts.

The relationship between mental toughness and dispositional flow

Abstract This article tested the relationship between mental toughness (MT) and dispositional flow. A sample of 135 athletes (M age=20.81 years, SD=2.76), derived from University sports teams and local sports clubs, gave informed consent before completing questionnaires to assess MT and dispositional flow. Pearson correlations revealed a significant and positive relationship between total MT and global flow scores (r=0.65, p <0.001). Correlations between total MT and dispositional flow subscales were all found to be significant and positive, ranging from 0.26 to 0.68. Correlations between global flow and MT subscales were also all significant and positive, ranging between 0.43 and 0.65. Linear regression analyses found MT subscales to account for 45% of the variance in disposition flow, and flow subscales to account for 50% of the variance in MT. These results suggest a reciprocal relationship between MT and flow.

A phenomenological exploration of exercise mental toughness: perceptions of exercise leaders and regular exercisers

Although elite sport has provided an ideal context for exploring mental toughness (MT), currently, there is scant research examining how this construct might be equally applicable in exercise settings, where high rates of attrition have been reported. The present research, therefore, aimed to address this gap, and to understand and conceptualise exercise mental toughness (EMT) through in-depth phenomenological interviews with a range of exercise leaders and exercise participants. Seven qualified and experienced exercise leaders and seven regular and frequent exercisers from formal exercise environments (i.e. gym and fitness classes) were interviewed. Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed independently by members of the interdisciplinary research team. Key themes were agreed and member checking was used to promote trustworthiness of interpretations. MT was recognisable in exercise settings, with 10 general dimensions found to be relatively consistent with conceptualisations derived from elite sport (e.g. commitment, focus, emotional control, etc.). Importantly, present findings reveal how mentally tough exercisers think and behave in exercise settings. Some negative consequences were also reported such as over-training and training with injuries. The article also discusses how components of EMT may be valuable in terms of exercise maintenance and relapse prevention during exercise behaviour change.

Flow in Sport

Sport offers rich opportunities to experience flow by posing both mental and physical challenges. Studies specifically investigating flow in sport were first published in 1992. Since then a body of empirical research has emerged in this area, which this chapter aims to review in terms of: (i) the methods commonly used to study flow in sport (i.e., interviews, questionnaires, and the Experience Sampling Method); and (ii) key research themes (i.e., the experience, occurrence, controllability and correlates of flow in sport). In turn, current issues within this field are examined, and recommendations are made for future research, including the need to build towards a causal explanation of flow, and potential refinement in understanding how athletes experience these optimal states.

Psychological states underlying excellent performance in sport: toward an integrated model of flow and clutch states

This study investigated the psychological states underlying excellent performance in 26 athletes (Mage = 29 years, SD = 7.7) across a range of sports (team, net/wall, sprint, endurance, adventure) and standards (world class to recreational). Participants were primarily interviewed on average 4 days after excellent performances. The data were analyzed thematically. Distinct states of flow and clutch were reported, each of which occurred through separate contexts and processes, while athletes also transitioned between states during performance. These findings extend current knowledge of the psychology of excellent performance and are discussed in terms of implications for future research and applied practice.

Bidirectional Associations between Sport Involvement and Mental Health in Adolescence

Purpose This study aimed to investigate potential bidirectional relationships between sport participation and mental health during early adolescence. Methods Data were taken from wave 5 (2012) and wave 6 (2014) of the K cohort of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. In total, there were 4023 participants (mean age = 12.41 yr, SD = 0.49 yr, at baseline), and this sample was followed up 24 months later. Cross-lagged panel models were used to examine bidirectional relationships between sport participation (hours per week for team, individual, and total sport participation) and mental health (total psychological difficulties, internalizing problems, and externalizing problems) as measured by the parent-report version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Results Bidirectional relationships were evident between time involved in sport and overall mental health (Sport12→SDQ14: &bgr; = −0.048; SDQ12→Sport14: &bgr; = −0.062). Bidirectional relationships were also evident between time involved in sport participation and internalizing (social and emotional) problems (Sport12→SDQ14: &bgr; = −0.068; SDQ12→Sport14: &bgr; = −0.067). The relationship between time in organized sport and externalizing problems (conduct problems and inattention/hyperactivity problems) was not bidirectional. Externalizing problems predicted later sports participation (&bgr; = −0.039), but not vice versa. Conclusion Findings demonstrate bidirectional relationships between sport participation and adolescent mental health. The design and implementation of youth sport programs should maximize mental health benefits, and programs should be designed, implemented, and marketed to be attractive to participants with poor psychosocial health.

The role of community sports clubs in adolescent mental health: the perspectives of adolescent males’ parents

Abstract Adolescent males are at relatively high risk of developing mental health disorders and show low rates of help seeking when mental health disorders arise. Parents are the primary source of support for adolescents and therefore have an important role in mental health promotion and prevention of mental health disorders. The aim of this study was to examine the perceptions of adolescent males’ parents on the potential role of community sport clubs in adolescent mental health promotion. Forty-six parents of adolescent males took part in 10 focus groups to investigate parents’ mental health knowledge, beliefs and attitudes, perceptions of the role of sport clubs in mental health promotion and disorder prevention, and factors that might promote or limit participation in (and effectiveness of) mental health-focused interventions. Thematic analysis revealed that parents had low levels of mental health literacy, were worried about the development of mental health disorders, but reported favourable attitudes towards receiving education on adolescent mental health. Parents also reported low confidence in their ability to discuss mental health with their adolescent and expressed mixed views on the role of the sport club in promoting positive mental health. These findings are considered in the context of developing mental health interventions that can maximise use of the unique youth sport environment.

Performing under pressure: Exploring the psychological state underlying clutch performance in sport

ABSTRACT Clutch performance is improved performance under pressure. However, little research has examined the psychological state experienced by athletes in these situations. Therefore, this study qualitatively examined the subjective experience underlying clutch performance across a range of sports (e.g., team, individual) and standards (Olympic to recreational athletes). Sixteen athletes (Mage = 27.08 years; SD = 6.48) took part in in-depth, semi-structured interviews primarily after an exceptional performance (M = 4.38 days later; SD = 3.14). Data were analysed inductively and thematically. Clutch states involved 12 characteristics, including heightened and deliberate concentration, intense effort, and heightened awareness, which distinguished the experience of clutch from other optimal psychological states such as flow. Other characteristics, such as perceptions of control, were also reported and supported previous experimental research on clutch. These findings present in-depth qualitative insights into the psychological state underlying clutch performance, and are discussed in relation to the existing literature on optimal psychological states in sport.

A Review of Scientific Progress in Flow in Sport and Exercise: Normal Science, Crisis, and a Progressive Shift

Flow is highly relevant and desirable in sport and exercise. Drawing on ideas from iconic philosophers of science—Thomas Kuhn, Karl Popper, and Imre Lakatos—we argue that research in this field has followed a pattern of “normal science.” With a series of accumulating criticisms and “anomalies,” we propose flow research is approaching a “crisis point.” We highlight problems with research based on the traditional nine-dimensions conceptualization of flow. Then, drawing on the work of Popper and Lakatos, we offer theoretical and methodological suggestions for developing a more progressive and practically useful theory for researchers and practitioners.