Stewart A. Vella

The role of the coach in facilitating positive youth development: Moving from theory to practice

Sport is suggested as a potentially important and sufficient path for positive youth development. However, how this responsibility is translated by coaching practitioners is not understood. This research investigated whether coaching practitioners desire outcomes for their adolescent athletes that reach beyond on-field success, and incorporate constructs that are associated with positive youth development. Twenty-two participation coaches for adolescent athletes participated in semi-structured interviews. Results suggest that coaches see themselves as responsible for facilitating eight interrelated and interdependent themes that are consistent with the positive youth development literature: competence, confidence, connection, character, life skills, climate, positive affect and, positive psychological capacities.

Objectively measured sedentary behaviour and health and development in children and adolescents: systematic review and meta‐analysis

Sedentary behaviour has emerged as a unique determinant of health in adults. Studies in children and adolescents have been less consistent. We reviewed the evidence to determine if the total volume and patterns (i.e. breaks and bouts) of objectively measured sedentary behaviour were associated with adverse health outcomes in young people, independent of moderate‐intensity to vigorous‐intensity physical activity. Four electronic databases (EMBASE MEDLINE, Ovid EMBASE, PubMed and Scopus) were searched (up to 12 November 2015) to retrieve studies among 2‐ to 18‐year‐olds, which used cross‐sectional, longitudinal or experimental designs, and examined associations with health outcomes (adiposity, cardio‐metabolic, fitness, respiratory, bone/musculoskeletal, psychosocial, cognition/academic achievement, gross motor development and other outcomes). Based on 88 eligible observational studies, level of evidence grading and quantitative meta‐analyses indicated that there is limited available evidence that the total volume or patterns of sedentary behaviour are associated with health in children and adolescents when accounting for moderate‐intensity to vigorous‐intensity physical activity or focusing on studies with low risk of bias. Quality evidence from studies with robust designs and methods, objective measures of sitting, examining associations for various health outcomes, is needed to better understand if the overall volume or patterns of sedentary behaviour are independent determinants of health in children and adolescents.

The relationship between coach leadership, the coach–athlete relationship, team success, and the positive developmental experiences of adolescent soccer players

Background: The goals of participation youth sports are primarily concerned with the facilitation of positive youth development as opposed to outright success. Consequently, there are strong theoretical and empirical links between sports coaching and athlete development. Transformational leadership behaviours, in particular, have been theoretically linked to positive developmental outcomes within a youth sport context, while the coach–athlete relationship is a key tool used by coaches who aim to teach life skills to young athletes. Outright team success has also been shown to correlate with important developmental variables such as a mastery climate and athlete perception of youth sports coaches. Aims: The purpose of this study was to test the relationship between coach transformational leadership behaviours, the perceived quality of the coach–athlete relationship, team success, and the positive developmental experiences of adolescent soccer players. Method: Cross-sectional data were taken from 455 adolescent athletes aged between 11 and 18 years. Each participant was competing in a local soccer competition that is classified as a participation sport. Thus, the theoretical focus is on developmental and skill gains. Each participant completed the Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory for Youth Sport, the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire, and the Youth Experience Survey for Sport. Team success was measured by the total number of competition points accumulated during the season. Findings: The results show that coach transformational leadership behaviour and the coach–athlete relationship have a moderate positive correlation with developmental experiences. Team success has no relationship with overall developmental experiences. The best predictor of developmental experiences is a combination of coach transformational leadership behaviour and the quality of the coach–athlete relationship. The most influential leadership behaviours are individual consideration, intellectual stimulation, and appropriate role modelling. Discussion: Transformational leadership and the quality of the coach–athlete relationship may work synergistically to influence positive athlete outcomes within youth sports. Importantly, coaches who practise within the youth sport context are able to facilitate positive developmental outcomes from both team success and team failure by taking advantage of naturally occurring teachable moments. The best way to take advantage of these may be to engage in intellectual stimulation, individual consideration, and positive role modelling, in addition to facilitating positive, developmentally appropriate coach–athlete relationships. Future coach education programmes should incorporate relevant interpersonal and intrapersonal skills that allow youth sports coaches to engage in these behaviours. Longitudinal work is needed in order to make causal inferences between transformational leadership behaviour, the quality of the coach–athlete relationship, and positive youth development through sports.

The application of coach leadership models to coaching practice: Current state and future directions

The purpose of this concept/review article is to critically discuss the application of sports coaching leadership models to coaching practice. The focus of the discussion will be on the coherence and impact of the numerous models in the current literature, and the accumulated impact that they have on practitioners. This discussion will be framed in current conceptions of sports coaching and expected athlete outcomes. This article can serve an important role in the continuing dialogue about the essence of sports leadership; particularly in relation to how it is defined, how it is measured, and how the leadership literature can be applied in the field.

Associations between sports participation and psychological difficulties during childhood: a two-year follow up

OBJECTIVES This paper assessed the associations between sports participation and the development of psychological strengths and difficulties during childhood. DESIGN Two-year follow up study of a sample of 4042 Australian children who were followed from age 8 years to 10 years. METHODS Parents reported childrens participation in organised sports, and completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Univariate general linear models were used to examine the association between changes in sports participation and psychological strengths and difficulties at 10 years, adjusting for psychological strengths and difficulties at age 8. RESULTS Children who maintained participation in sport had lower rates of parent-reported psychological difficulties at 10 years compared with children who dropped out of sport. Less internalising problems were also reported for children who participated in organised sports compared to children who dropped out of sports and children who did not participate in sports. These relationships did not differ by BMI, socioeconomic status, or parental education. CONCLUSIONS Greater psychological difficulties are experienced by children who drop out of sports, and greater social and emotional problems are experienced by children who drop out of sports and who do not participate in organised sports. Due consideration should be given to the quality and implementation of sporting programs to ensure that they provide benefits to mental health. Due consideration should also be given to the potential psychological difficulties being experienced by children who drop out of organised sports as a higher level of psychological difficulties may be experienced prior to or subsequent to dropout.

Sports Participation and Parent-Reported Health-Related Quality of Life in Children: Longitudinal Associations

OBJECTIVE To investigate the longitudinal association between sports participation and parent-reported health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in children. STUDY DESIGN Cohort study that used data drawn from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children in waves 3 (2008) and 4 (2010). Participants were a nationally representative sample of 4042 Australian children ages 8.25 (SD = 0.44) years at baseline and followed-up 24 months later. RESULTS After we adjusted for multiple covariates, children who continued to participate in sports between the ages of 8 and 10 years had greater parent-reported HRQOL at age 10 (Eta2 = .02) compared with children who did not participate in sports (P ≤ .001), children who commenced participation after 8 years of age (P = .004), and children who dropped out of sports before reaching 10 years of age (P = .04). Children who participated in both team and individual sports (P = .02) or team sports alone (P = .04) had greater HRQOL compared with children who participated in individual sports alone (Eta2 = .01). The benefits of sports participation were strongest for girls (P < .05; Eta2 = .003). CONCLUSIONS Childrens participation in developmentally appropriate team sports helps to protect HRQOL and should be encouraged at an early age and maintained for as long as possible.

Longitudinal associations between sports participation, body composition and physical activity from childhood to adolescence

Objectives Several important research questions have been addressed: (1) What are the cross-sectional associations between sports club participation, objectively measured physical activity, and adiposity? (2) Do measures of physical activity and adiposity predict subsequent sports club participation? (3) Does sports club participation predict subsequent measures of physical activity and adiposity? and (4) Do changes in sports club participation predict changes in objective measures of physical activity and adiposity? Design Longitudinal and cross-sectional. Methods Data from the Gateshead Millennium Study birth cohort (n = 609 at age 7 years) were analysed for associations between adiposity, sports club participation and accelerometer-measured physical activity from ages 7y to 9y to 12y. Results Seventy-two per cent of 9 year olds and 63% of 12 year olds took part in a sports club. Sports club participation was significantly associated with overall accelerometer-measured physical activity at 12y (coefficient = 0.0.09; 95% CI: 0.01–0.16) but not 9y. An inverse relationship between fat mass (estimated from bioelectric impedance) and sport club participation, and between fat mass and accelerometer-measured physical activity was observed at 12y, but not 9y. Sports club participation at 9y was highly predictive of participation at 12y. Sports club participation was significantly associated with socioeconomic status; fewer children from poorer areas took part. Conclusions Sports club participation in adolescence may be associated with decreased levels of adiposity. Furthermore, the potential benefits of sports club participation for adiposity are likely generated from continuous participation in sports, rather than any long-term protective effects.

Increasing the Effectiveness of Formal Coach Education: Evidence of a Parallel Process

The purpose of this study was to use the results of an exploratory case study to discuss the design and delivery of formal coach education pathways. Nine coaches completed qualitative and quantitative feedback on a formal transformational leadership training program. The theme that was consistently being presented by coaches was the need for learning to be situated within practical demonstrations and discussions where the coach learner and coach educator work collaboratively to facilitate understanding of the applications of program content to coaching practice. These results have been discussed in the light of the parallel processes that are evident in coach education. The relationship dynamics between athlete and coach are paralleled in the relationship between coach learner and coach educator. Formalising the parallel process in coach education is put forward as a conceptually sound approach to facilitate reflection in coaching practitioners through the use of practical demonstrations.

Results from Australia’s 2014 Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth

BACKGROUND Like many other countries, Australia is facing an inactivity epidemic. The purpose of the Australian 2014 Physical Activity Report Card initiative was to assess the behaviors, settings, and sources of influences and strategies and investments associated with the physical activity levels of Australian children and youth. METHODS A Research Working Group (RWG) drawn from experts around Australia collaborated to determine key indicators, assess available datasets, and the metrics which should be used to inform grades for each indicator and factors to consider when weighting the data. The RWG then met to evaluate the synthesized data to assign a grade to each indicator. RESULTS Overall Physical Activity Levels were assigned a grade of D-. Other physical activity behaviors were also graded as less than average (D to D-), while Organized Sport and Physical Activity Participation was assigned a grade of B-. The nation performed better for settings and sources of influence and Government Strategies and Investments (A- to a C). Four incompletes were assigned due to a lack of representative quality data. CONCLUSIONS Evidence suggests that physical activity levels of Australian children remain very low, despite moderately supportive social, environmental and regulatory environments. There are clear gaps in the research which need to be filled and consistent data collection methods need to be put into place.

Trajectories and Predictors of Health-Related Quality of Life during Childhood.

OBJECTIVE To identify distinct trajectories of health-related quality of life (HRQOL) during childhood, along with their predictors. STUDY DESIGN A nationally representative sample of 2700 children aged 4-5 years at baseline was followed up every 24 months through to age 12-13 years. Parents reported the childrens HRQOL and data on potential predictors at each wave (5 in total) as part of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. RESULTS Growth mixture modeling identified 5 distinct trajectories of HRQOL during childhood. Eighty-five percent of children had consistently high levels of HRQOL from age 4-5 years to 12-13 years (healthy); 8% of children had a significant and continuous decrease in HRQOL over time (high risk); and a further 5.3% of children had decreases in HRQOL from age 4-5 years to 8-9 years, followed by increases through to 12-13 years (rebound). Finally, a small percentage (1.6%) of children had extremely low levels of HRQOL at age 4-5 years that increased over time (recovery). Maternal smoking, lower household income, living in a non-English speaking household, and nonparticipation in organized sports were predictive of poorer HRQOL trajectories when compared with children in the healthy trajectory. CONCLUSION There are distinct trajectories of HRQOL during childhood. Most children (85%) have a healthy, stable pattern, but the remaining children have trajectories indicative of poor HRQOL. Participation in sports, maternal smoking, lower family income, and language spoken at home distinguish among these trajectories. Of these, participation in organized sports has received relatively little attention as a preventative health priority.