Christian G. Tortzen

Arylethynyl derivatives of the dihydroazulene/vinylheptafulvene photo/thermoswitch: tuning the switching event.

A selection of dihydroazulene (DHA) photoswitches incorporating an arylethynyl-substituent in the seven-membered ring was prepared by palladium-catalyzed Sonogashira cross-coupling reactions employing a suitable bromo-functionalized DHA. Shielding of the alkyne bridge and separating the aryl and DHA units, by sterically demanding groups, was required to obtain stable compounds. The DHAs underwent a light-induced ring-opening to vinylheptafulvenes (VHFs) which were thermally converted to a mixture of two DHA regioisomers, one of which was the original one. The influence of the aryl groups on the DHA and VHF absorptions and on their interconversion was investigated in detail. The rates of the switching events were finely tuned by the donor or acceptor strength of the aryl group. The thermal ring closure was found to proceed most readily in the presence of an electron-donating group on the seven-membered ring. The rate constant was found to follow a Hammett linear free energy correlation, which signals that stabilization of a positive charge in the seven-membered ring plays a crucial role in the ring-closure reaction. In view of these findings, it was possible to control the switching event by protonation/deprotonation of an anilino-substituted DHA. Also, the light-induced ring opening reaction was strongly controlled by acid/base. In addition to the mesomeric effects exerted by an arylethynyl group, the inductive effects exerted by different groups on the thermal ring closure were elucidated. Although the alkyne bridge transmits the electronic character of the aryl group, the ring-closure is retarded for all the ethynylated compounds relative to the parent unsubstituted compound. Along with our synthesis of suitable arylalkynes, we discovered an interesting byproduct in a Sonogashira cross-coupling reaction involving a nitrophenyl group, namely a diaryl azoxy compound. Its structure was confirmed by X-ray crystallographic analysis.

Identification of a New Metabolite of GHB: Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid Glucuronide

Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is an important analyte in clinical and forensic toxicology with a narrow detection window of 3-6 h. In the search of improved detection methods, the existence in vivo of a glucuronated GHB metabolite (GHB-GLUC) was hypothesized. Chemically pure standards of GHB-GLUC and a deuterated analogue for chromatography were synthesized. Liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry were used for targeted analysis in anonymous clinical urine samples (n = 50). GHB-GLUC was found in concentrations ranging from 0.11 to 5.0 µg/mL (mean: 1.3 ± 1.2 µg/mL). Thus far, this is the first report of a GHB glucuronide detected in biological samples. Given that glucuronides generally have longer half-life values than their corresponding free drugs, GHB-GLUC should theoretically be a biomarker of GHB intoxication. It is also proposed that the hitherto unexplained reports of elevated GHB concentrations in some biological samples, which has caused the setting of a relatively high cutoff value (10 µg/mL), represent total GHB measurements (sum of free GHB and actively chemically hydrolyzed GHB-GLUC). To address these challenges, the present study must be followed by comprehensive pharmacokinetic and stability studies after the controlled administration of GHB.

A Bis(heptafulvenyl)-dicyanoethylene Thermoswitch with Two Sites for Ring Closure

Suitably functionalized vinylheptafulvenes (VHFs) act as thermoswitches undergoing ring closure to the corresponding dihydroazulenes (DHAs). Here we present the synthesis of a new such thermoswitch incorporating two heptafulvene rings on a dicyanoethylene unit. The synthetic protocol explores both the tropylium species as an electrophile and as a leaving group in the generation of the heptafulvene units. The thermally induced ring closure was enhanced as a result of two accessible sites for the reaction to occur.

Synthesis and stability study of a new major metabolite of γ-hydroxybutyric acid

Summary γ-Hydroxybutanoic acid (GHB) is used as a date-rape drug, which renders the victims unconscious and defenceless. Intoxications are very difficult to detect for forensic scientists due to rapid metabolism to endogenous levels of GHB. We recently discovered a new major metabolite, 2, of GHB (1) that could potentially extend the analytical detection window for GHB intoxications. Herein we disclose synthetic procedures based on a Koenigs–Knorr glucuronidation approach that provides GHB glucuronide 2 and a deuterium-labelled analogue d 4-2 of high purity suitable for analytical chemistry. In addition, we have assessed the stability of GHB glucuronide 2 by mimicking the natural pH range for urine, which is of importance in the development of new analytical methods. Using NMR we show that GHB glucuronide 2 is highly stable towards aqueous hydrolysis within the pH range normally observed for urine even at elevated temperature.

2-(2-Bromophenyl)-formononetin and 2-heptyl-formononetin are PPARγ partial agonists and reduce lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Isoflavones are bioactive compounds that have been shown to decrease lipid accumulation in vitro. However, the knowledge of the isoflavone formononetin is limited. The aim of the study was to assess the effects of formononetin and its two synthetic analogues, 2-(2-bromophenyl)-formononetin and 2-heptyl-formononetin, on lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and investigate possible mechanisms. Formononetin and the two analogues were added day 0-8 or day 8-10 of the differentiation period, and lipid accumulation, glycerol release and gene expression were measured. Additionally, competitive peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ binding assay, PPARγ transactivation assay and Western blot for phosphorylated AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) were performed. Chronic treatment (day 0-8) with formononetin increased lipid accumulation, whereas the two analogues decreased lipid accumulation partly due to decreased differentiation. The two analogues, but not formononetin, also decreased lipid content in mature adipocytes. 2-Heptyl-formononetin increased glycerol release and lipolytic gene expression and decreased lipogenic gene expression. Formononetin did not bind to or activate PPARγ whereas both analogues bound to the receptor and behaved as PPARγ partial agonists in the transactivation assay. Neither of the compounds affected phosphorylation of AMPK. In conclusion, the analogues of formononetin decreased lipid accumulation possibly in part by acting as PPARγ partial agonists.

2-Heptyl-Formononetin Increases Cholesterol and Induces Hepatic Steatosis in Mice

Consumption of isoflavones may prevent adiposity, hepatic steatosis, and dyslipidaemia. However, studies in the area are few and primarily with genistein. This study investigated the effects of formononetin and its synthetic analogue, 2-heptyl-formononetin (C7F), on lipid and cholesterol metabolism in C57BL/6J mice. The mice were fed a cholesterol-enriched diet for five weeks to induce hypercholesterolemia and were then fed either the cholesterol-enriched diet or the cholesterol-enriched diet-supplemented formononetin or C7F for three weeks. Body weight and composition, glucose homeostasis, and plasma lipids were compared. In another experiment, mice were fed the above diets for five weeks, and hepatic triglyceride accumulation and gene expression and histology of adipose tissue and liver were examined. Supplementation with C7F increased plasma HDL-cholesterol thereby increasing the plasma level of total cholesterol. Supplementation with formononetin did not affect plasma cholesterol but increased plasma triglycerides levels. Supplementation with formononetin and C7F induced hepatic steatosis. However, formononetin decreased markers of inflammation and liver injury. The development of hepatic steatosis was associated with deregulated expression of hepatic genes involved in lipid and lipoprotein metabolism. In conclusion, supplementation with formononetin and C7F to a cholesterol-enriched diet adversely affected lipid and lipoprotein metabolism in C57BL/6J mice.

Monoprotection of Triamines with Alkyl Phenyl Carbonates

Historically we have been interested in developing simple procedures for the partial protection of polyamines using stoichiometric amounts of reagents and avoiding the use of chromatographic purification. We previously described the use of alkyl phenyl carbonates for the monoprotection of diamines and diprotection of triamines in fair to good yields.1,2 Alkyl phenyl carbonates are easy to synthesize on a large scale and have a long shelf-life.1 We were interested in the monoprotection of N1-(2-aminoethyl)-1,2-diaminoethane (1), N1-(3-aminopropyl)-1,3-diaminopropane (6) and N1-(2-aminoethyl)-1,3-diaminopropane (9), which are commercially available, inexpensive and interesting as building blocks for a new family of dendrimers. The regioselective acylation of polyamines has been the subject of considerable interest and is undoubtly related to the versatility of the products as well as the chemist’s fascination with symmetry breaking in molecules. Since polyamines are polybasic, this suggests partial protonation as one of the strategies for providing temporary protection of some of the amino groups. However, this strategy requires strict pH control and prior knowledge of the individual pKb-values. The monoacetylation of acyclic aliphatic α,ω-diamines with phenyl acetate was studied by Bruice and Willis,3 who showed that the monoacetylation of 1,3-diaminopropane was twelve times faster than that of 1,2-diaminoethane. This is interesting considering that 1,2-diaminoethane is a stronger base than 1,3-diaminopropane and it would be expected that the strongest base should be the strongest nucleophile. The results were explained as a result of general base catalysis involving the ω-amino group of the α,ω-diamine, where the cyclic transition state was more favorable in the case of 1,3-diaminopropane than in 1,2-diaminoethane. Sayre and coworkers4 also investigated the acylation of 1,2-diaminoethane with various acylating reagents and found that either highdilution conditions or the use of weaker acylating reagents such as N-hydroxysuccinimide esters were necessary in order to keep diacylation to a minimum. They also carried out a kinetic study of the acetylation of a series of α,ω-diamines and derivatives, including α,ω-dimethylated and monoamides with 4-nitrophenyl acetate, and confirmed the findings of Bruice and Willis.3 Acylation of one of the amino groups in an α,ω-diamine reduces

Complexation of Fullerenes by Subphthalocyanine Dimers

Tweezer-like molecules comprised of two boron subphthalocyanine (SubPc) units were prepared by Sonogashira couplings and investigated using NMR spectroscopy for their ability to bind fullerenes (C60 and C70). The preorganization of the tweezers provided association constants of ca. 103 M-1 in toluene- d8, while a SubPc monomer did not show any association. Nevertheless, the SubPc monomer crystallized with the fullerenes as 2:1 complexes, supporting the favorable tweezer-like design for complexation, which was further corroborated by computations.

Cyanohydrin reactions enhance glycolytic oscillations in yeast

Synchronous metabolic oscillations can be induced in yeast by addition of glucose and removal of extracellular acetaldehyde (ACAx). Compared to other means of ACAx removal, cyanide robustly induces oscillations, indicating additional cyanide reactions besides ACA to lactonitrile conversion. Here, (13)C NMR is used to confirm our previous hypothesis, that cyanide directly affects glycolytic fluxes through reaction with carbonyl-containing compounds. Intracellularly, at least 3 cyanohydrins were identified. Extracellularly, all signals could be identified and lactonitrile was found to account for ~66% of total cyanide removal. Simulations of our updated computational model show that intracellular cyanide reactions increase the amplitude of oscillations and that cyanide addition lowers [ACA] instantaneously. We conclude that cyanide provides the following means of inducing global oscillations: a) by reducing [ACAx] relative to oscillation amplitude, b) by targeting multiple intracellular carbonyl compounds during fermentation, and c) by acting as a phase resetting stimulus.