Christopher J. Beedie

The profile of mood states and athletic performance: two meta-analyses

Abstract The present study comprised two meta-analyses of published studies that used the Profile of Mood States (POMS) to investigate relationships between mood and athletic achievement (n = 13) and between mood and performance outcome (n = 16). Results showed that effect sizes (ESs) for the level of achievement metaanalysis were minimal (Weighted Mean ES = .10, SD = .07), a finding consistent with a previous meta-analysis by Rowley, Landers, Kyllo, and Etnier (1995). Larger effects were found for the performance outcome meta-analysis (Weighted Mean ES = .31, SD = .12). Effects were moderate for vigor, confusion, and depression, small for anger and tension, and very small for fatigue. All effects were in the direction predicted by Morgans (1985) Mental Health Model. Effects were larger in sports of short duration, in sports involving open skills, and where performance was judged using self-referenced criteria. Findings suggest that the POMS has utility in the prediction of performance outcome but not in the prediction of level of achievement.

The Role of Glucose in Self-Control: Another Look at the Evidence and an Alternative Conceptualization

The strength model suggests that self-control relies on a limited resource. One candidate for this resource is glucose. Counter to the proposals of the glucose hypothesis, this study argues that the resource issue is one of allocation, not of limited supply. It addresses the argument from three perspectives: the evolution of mental processes at the species level, the adaptation of these same processes at the individual level, and the physiology of glucose transport. It is argued here that the brain has both sufficient resources and resource delivery mechanisms with which to support self-control but that these resources are allocated in accordance with personal priorities. As an alternative to the limited resource model, the current study proposes a resource-allocation model of self-control and presents several testable hypotheses.

Mood and performance: test of a conceptual model with a focus on depressed mood

Objectives. The present study tested a conceptual model of mood–performance relationships (J. Appl. Sport Psychol. 12 (2000) 16) which proposed that depressed mood would influence the intensity and inter-relationships of other mood responses, and moderate the anger–performance and tension–performance relationships. Design. To promote ecological validity, the model was tested in a field setting using a cross-sectional design. Methods. A sample of 451 schoolchildren [age: MEAN=12.4 years, standard deviation (SD)=1.3 years] completed the Profile of Mood States — Adolescents (POMS-A; J. Sports Sci. 17 (1999) 861) and stated a performance goal, approximately 10 minutes before a running event. Participants were divided into a depressed mood group (n=273) and a no-depression group (n=178) on the basis of responses to the POMS-A depression subscale. Results. As hypothesised, the depressed mood group reported higher scores for anger, confusion, fatigue and tension, and lower scores for vigour. Inter-correlations among these mood dimensions were stronger in the depressed mood group, who set easier goals and performed less well. Vigour was associated with facilitated performance regardless of depression. Anger was associated with debilitated performance in the depressed mood group and with facilitated performance in the no-depression group. Some support was shown for a moderating effect of depressed mood on the tension–performance relationship. The hypothesised curvilinear anger–performance and tension–performance relationships in the no-depression group did not emerge. Conclusion. The Lane and Terry model was generally, but not totally, supported. Future research should continue to investigate the mechanisms underlying mood–performance relationships.

The BASES Expert Statement on emotion regulation in sport

Abstract Emotions experienced before and during sports competition have been found to influence sports performance. Emotion regulation is defined as the automatic or deliberate use of strategies to initiate, maintain, modify or display emotions (Gross & Thompson, 2007) and is proposed to occur when a discrepancy exists between current and desired emotions. Two distinct motivations to regulate emotion – hedonic and instrumental (in short, for pleasure or for purpose) – have been proposed (Tamir, 2009). The instrumental approach might provide a more fruitful area of investigation for sports researchers as some athletes hold beliefs that supposedly pleasant emotions such as happiness and calmness associate with poor performance and supposedly unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and anger associate with good performance (Hanin, 2010). Athletes are more likely to try to regulate an emotion if they believe that doing so will facilitate performance. Strategies that encourage re-appraisal of factors that trigger emotions are proposed to be preferable. In this British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) expert statement, a summary of the key theoretical issues are offered leading to evidence-based recommendations for practitioners and researchers.

Emotion in sport: considering interpersonal regulation strategies

Research into emotion regulation in sport has predominantly focused on intrapersonal regulation of emotion response systems (i.e. subjective experience, cognitions, behaviours or physiological responses). However, researchers in social psychology have suggested that the emotion regulation process is inherently social and interpersonal. This shift represents a significant change in how emotion regulation is conceptualized and, given the intensity of emotions experienced in sport, represents a potentially productive line of enquiry. This review addresses interpersonal emotion regulation in sport, and draws attention to work in social psychology that might inform future sports research. Specifically, the utility of social-functional approaches will be considered.

Mood and concentration grid performance: Effects of depressed mood

Abstract The current study tested Lane and Terrys (2000) proposal that depressed mood moderates anger‐performance and tension‐performance relationships. One hundred and thirty‐six male sport students completed the 24‐item Brunel Mood Scale followed by a concentration grid test. Participants were dichotomized into depressed mood (n = 59) and no depression (n = 77) groups. Structural equation modeling showed that mood predicted 41% of performance variance in the no‐depression group and 31% in the depressed‐mood group. As hypothesized, anger was associated with good performance in the no‐depression group and poor performance in the depressed‐mood group, supporting the notion that depressed mood moderates the anger‐performance relationship. Contrary to expectations, tension scores showed no significant relationship with performance in either group. Future research should continue to investigate the mechanisms underlying mood‐performance relationships.

Effects of a Low Volume Injury Prevention Program on the Hamstring Torque Angle Relationship

The effects of a 4-week lower body injury prevention program on knee muscle torque–angle relationship were examined in soccer players. Twenty men were randomly allocated to either a control (n = 10) or training group (n = 10). The training group underwent three training sessions per week, comprising 3 sets of 8 repetitions of one open-chain exercise (Nordic curl) and two closed-chain exercises—forward lunges on a Bosu® balance trainer and eccentric single leg dead lifts. Maximal peak knee flexion torque was measured at 35°, 45°, 60°, 80°, 90°, and 100° pre- and post-intervention. Significant improvements were observed only at 80° (p = .001; d = .94) along with a nonsignificant trend at 35° (p = .081; d = .43). As these modifications might protect athletes against muscle and joint injuries, the use of both stable-open and unstable-closed kinetic chain exercises emphasizing eccentric hamstring and knee stabilization actions should be integrated into injury prevention programs in team sports athletes.

Emotions and Emotion Regulation Among Novice Military Parachutists

Soldiers (N = 95) reported emotions and emotion regulation strategies experienced in their first parachute jump and other challenging situations. Results indicated an emotional profile characterized by feeling anxious, energetic, and happy before parachuting and playing sport. However, this pattern was not similar to the emotional responses experienced at work or in life in general. Participants reported greater use of strategies to increase unpleasant emotions an hour before parachuting than in other situations. Findings suggest that developing training protocols to increase the flexibility and versatility of emotion regulation skills might enhance the preparation of novice soldiers for military duties.