Christopher M. Spray

Correlates of achievement goal orientations in physical activity: A systematic review of research

There has been a plethora of studies in the past decade investigating task and ego achievement goal orientations in physical activity settings and how they might be associated with various cognitive, affective and behavioral variables. Although comprehensive narrative reviews of the field exist, no systematic review has been reported except one meta-analysis on only goals and affect. The present paper, therefore, reports a systematic review of 10 correlates of achievement goal orientations across 98 studies and 110 independent samples (total N = 21,076). Studies are invariably cross-sectional, leading to an inability to conclude causal effects, and are biased towards young people. Frequencies and effect size calculations show associations of varying magnitude between a task orientation and (a) beliefs that effort produces success (positive association: +); (b) motives of skill development and team membership (+); (c) beliefs that the purpose of sport/PE is for fostering mastery, fitness, and self-esteem (+); (d) perceptions of competence (+); (e) positive affect (+); (f) negative affect (negative association: -); (g) parental task orientation (+); and (h) various measures or markers of behavior (+). Associations of varying magnitude were found between an ego orientation and (a) beliefs that possessing ability produces success (+); (b) motives of status/recognition and competition (+); (c) beliefs that the purpose of sport/PE is for social status (+); (d) perceptions of competence (+); (e) unsportspersonlike attitudes, endorsement of intentionally aggressive sport acts, and the display of aggressive behaviors in sport (+); and (f) parental ego orientation (+).

Motivation for physical activity in young people: Entity and incremental beliefs about athletic ability

Three studies are reported of children and youth aged 11–19 years (n = 3478) examining the nature of beliefs about athletic ability. Drawing on related research in academic, moral and stereotyping domains, development of a psychometric instrument assessing athletic ability beliefs is detailed. Support was found for a multidimensional hierarchical structure that is invariant across age and gender. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed a structure comprising two higher-order factors of entity and incremental beliefs underpinned by beliefs that athletic ability is stable and a gift (entity), and is open to improvement and can be developed through learning (incremental). Incremental beliefs, indirectly through a task goal orientation, and entity beliefs directly, predicted self-reported amotivation towards physical education and sport. On the other hand, enjoyment of physical activity in youth was predicted directly by task orientation and incremental beliefs. Predictions concerning the moderating role of perceived competence were not supported. Our findings highlight the importance of ability beliefs and goals in understanding the determinants of physical activity in children and youth.

The Motivational Atmosphere in Youth Sport: Coach, Parent, and Peer Influences on Motivation in Specializing Sport Participants

This study qualitatively examined the motivationally relevant behaviors of key social agents in specializing sport participants. Seventy-nine participants (9–18 years old) from 26 sports participated in semi-structured focus groups investigating how coaches, parents, and peers may influence motivation. Using a critical-realist perspective, an inductive content analysis indicated that specializing athletes perceived a multitude of motivationally relevant social cues. Coaches’ and parents’ influences were related to their specific roles: instruction/assessment for coaches, support-and-facilitation for parents. Peers influenced motivation through competitive behaviors, collaborative behaviors, evaluative communications, and through their social relationships. The results help to delineate different roles for social agents in influencing athletes’ motivation.

Understanding motivation in sport: An experimental test of achievement goal and self determination theories

Abstract This paper presents an experimental test of two contemporary motivation theories in the physical domain. The study combined experimentally-induced achievement goal involvement with autonomous and controlling communication styles based on self determination theory to examine young peoples enjoyment, free-choice behavior and performance in relation to a golf task. Results showed that those in the autonomous condition, regardless of their goal involvement, reported greater enjoyment, persisted longer at the task and performed better than those in the controlling communication condition. Participants in the task involved condition performed better than those in the ego involved condition. Findings point to the need for further studies that test multiple theories in sport. The motivational impact of goal involvement may be better understood when considered concurrently with the autonomous or controlling nature of the context. Promoting autonomy and task involvement is likely to enhance positive affect and adaptive behaviors in sport among young people.

Goal orientations, self-determination and pupils' discipline in physical education

In this study, we examined the patterns of goal orientations, perceived competence, reasons for behaving well and self-reported discipline in school physical education among 511 pupils from years 8 and 9 (mean age 14.2 years). Cluster analyses were conducted on two randomly split subsamples to identify homogeneous groups of pupils on these measures of achievement motivation and discipline. Three meaningful clusters emerged for the first subsample, which were then cross-validated for the second subsample. One group of pupils revealed low scores on task and ego orientations, perceived competence and feelings of self-determination about their behaviour in lessons. These perceptions were related to lower ratings of discipline in physical education than pupils who scored more highly on these variables. The highest discipline scores were reported by pupils with high task and ego orientations, perceived competence and feelings of autonomy. The results are useful for teachers and other physical activity leaders in enhancing motivation and disciplined behaviour in young people. Promoting more self-determined reasons for being disciplined, for example, could lead to more orderly classes.

Motivational Climate and Perceived Strategies to Sustain Pupilsí Discipline in Physical Education

This study examined relationships among pupils’ perceptions of task-involving and ego-involving climates in their physical education (PE) classes and perceived teacher’s strategies to sustain discipline. The Learning and Performance Oriented Physical Education Classes Questionnaire and the Strategies to Sustain Discipline Scale were completed by 488 pupils aged 12–14 years. Canonical correlation analysis revealed a positive association between pupils’ perceived task-involving climate and theirperceptions of teaching strategies promoting pupils’ internal locus of causality for the regulation of disciplined behaviour. On the other hand, the perception of an ego-involving climate was linked with the promotion of an external locus of causality. Moreover, different combinations of perceived climate were associated with perceived teaching strategies to keep discipline. The perception of a teacher emphasizing more internalized reasons for discipline was stronger among pupils perceiving a high task-involving PE climate, regardless of their perceptions of the salience of a prevailing ego climate.The results have implications for teachers wishing to maximize pupil involvement and discipline in PE classes.

Why young elite athletes fear failure: consequences of failure

Abstract Fear of failure can have negative effects on children in achievement settings, affecting many aspects of their lives. Perceiving the consequences of failure to be aversive provides the basis for fear of failure, and the anticipation of a threatening outcome elicits fear. Problems attributed to fear of failure in achievement settings are prevalent. Sport is a popular and significant achievement domain for children and adolescents and there is a lack of research on fear of failure in sport among this age group. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate fear of failure in the sport domain among young elite athletes, and to explore their perceptions of the consequences of failure. Interviews were conducted individually with nine athletes aged 14 – 17 years (5 males, 4 females). Analysis identified and organized perceived consequences of failure into themes and categories. Results revealed that the most commonly perceived aversive consequences of failure were diminished perception of self, no sense of achievement, and the emotional cost of failure. These findings are consistent with those reported in adult population, suggesting the potential for generalizing existing results to young elite athletes.

Achievement goals, beliefs about the causes of success and reported emotion in post-16 physical education

The main aim of this study was to examine whether goal orientations of male and female adolescents involved in an optional post-16 physical education (PE) programme were related in a conceptually consistent manner with their beliefs about the causes of success in PE. We also determined relationships between these achievement goal-belief dimensions and reported enjoyment and boredom within PE classes. Participants (n = 171) in a sixth-form college PE programme completed an inventory assessing their task and ego goal orientations, beliefs about the determinants of success in PE, and emotion in PE activities at college. Separate factor analyses of goal orientations and beliefs for male and female students revealed two goal-belief dimensions. The first dimension showed ego orientation was linked to the view that ability and deceptive tactics lead to success. The second dimension suggested task orientation was associated with the belief that success is the result of hard work and effort. This task goal-belief factor was found to be more strongly correlated with enjoyment in PE among female students than among males. For boys, the task goal-belief factor was correlated significantly and negatively with boredom in PE, but this was not the case for girls. No significant relationships emerged between the ego goal-belief factor and reported emotion in PE among the male and female participants. Facilitating task involvement and beliefs about causes of success that are fundamentally under personal control may, therefore, promote positive affective experiences in sixth-form PE, especially among female students.

Achievement goal orientations and participation in physical education among male and female sixth form students.

contexts such as sport and physical education (PE), a willingness to participate, to try hard, to concentrate and persist in the face of obstacles are qualities invariably espoused by those in authority, whilst non-participation, dropping-out, lack of effort and poor persistence are deemed incompatible with achievement. In recent years, social-cognitive, goal perspective theories of motivation have been

PREDICTING PARTICIPATION IN NONCOMPULSORY PHYSICAL EDUCATION: DO GOAL PERSPECTIVES MATTER? '

The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between personal and situational achievement goals and participation in an optional physical education program, utilising a prospective design. Pupils (N=123) in their final year of compulsory schooling completed measures assessing goal orientations, perceptions of the motivational climate of their physical education class, perceived competence, and enjoyment of physical education. Those pupils (N=76) who continued their full-time education at a sixth form college were later surveyed to determine whether they participated in physical education at college. Hierarchical discriminant function analysis showed that discrimination was possible between participants and nonparticipants in college physical education on perceptions of a prevailing mastery climate and enjoyment. Goal orientations, perceptions of a prevailing performance climate, and perceived competence did not contribute reliably to group separation. Participants at college were more likely to perceive a mastery environment and to enjoy lessons more than students who chose not to take part. These findings underscore the importance of promoting mastery-based criteria for success in classes, along with positive emotional reactions, if teachers wish to maximise involvement in noncompulsory physical education.