Cindy Harmon-Jones

Anger, coping, and frontal cortical activity: The effect of coping potential on anger-induced left frontal activity

The present research tested whether relative left midfrontal cortical activity would be greater when individuals believed they could engage in behaviour to ameliorate an anger-inducing situation as compared to when they believed they could do nothing. The research also examined whether relative left midfrontal cortical activity would relate to behaviors aimed at ameliorating the anger-inducing situation, when individuals believed they could do something. To test these primary hypotheses, university students who were opposed to a tuition increase at their university were exposed to a pilot radio editorial that argued for increased tuition, and their electroencephalographic (EEG) activity, self-reported emotions, and behavioural responses were then collected. Prior to hearing the editorial, participants were led to believe that the tuition increase would definitely occur or that the tuition increase may occur and that petitions were being circulated to attempt to prevent it. Results supported the primary hypotheses and also revealed that relative left midfrontal activity was associated with anger in response to the editorial and that the effects were specific to the midfrontal cortical regions.

Chapter 3 Action-Based Model of Dissonance. A Review, Integration, and Expansion of Conceptions of Cognitive Conflict

Abstract An action‐based model of dissonance is presented. This model accepts the original theorys proposal that a sufficient cognitive inconsistency causes the negative affective state of dissonance. It extends the original theory by proposing why cognitive inconsistency prompts dissonance and dissonance reduction. After reviewing past theoretical and empirical developments on cognitive dissonance theory, we describe the action‐based model and present results from behavioral and physiological experiments that have tested predictions derived from this model. In particular, this evidence converges with recent neuroscience evidence in suggesting that the anterior cingulate cortex and left prefrontal cortical region are involved in conflict detection and resolution, respectively. We end by reviewing research on individual differences in dissonance arousal and reduction, and present a new measure designed to assess these individual differences.

Testing the Action-Based Model of Cognitive Dissonance: The Effect of Action Orientation on Postdecisional Attitudes

Two experiments were designed to test the prediction, derived from the action-based model of cognitive dissonance, that facilitation of an action-oriented mindset would increase cognitive discrepancy reduction. In Experiment 1, following an easy or difficult decision, a manipulated action-oriented mindset (thinking about implementing the decision) caused persons who made a difficult decision to change their evaluations of the decision alternatives in favor of the decision (spreading of alternatives) more than other participants. Experiment 2 conceptually replicated the effects of Experiment 1, even when an action orientation was induced by having persons write about implementing a different decision. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings.

The Effect of Personal Relevance and Approach-Related Action Expectation on Relative Left Frontal Cortical Activity

Past research using a variety of methods has suggested that the frontal cortex is asymmetrically involved in the experience and expression of positive (or approach motivational) and negative (or withdrawal motivational) affects, with the left frontal region being involved in positive affects (or approach) and the right frontal region being involved in negative affects (or withdrawal). However, some studies have failed to replicate these effects, leaving many scientists questioning the meaning of the past supportive findings. To examine these inconsistencies in results, we tested the hypothesis that increasing the personal relevance of the stimuli and approach motivational intensity would increase relative left frontal activation. Results supported the predictions. Moreover, by showing the predicted effects with anger-inducing stimuli, the results demonstrated that motivational direction, rather than affective valence, accounts for asymmetrical frontal cortical activity.

Proneness to Hypomania/Mania Symptoms or Depression Symptoms and Asymmetrical Frontal Cortical Responses to an Anger-Evoking Event

The behavioral approach system (BAS) reflects the propensity to respond to signals of reward, including stimuli associated with safety and goal-oriented attack (e.g., anger). Hypomania/mania has been posited to involve increased BAS activity. In contrast, depression has been posited to involve decreased BAS activity. Building on past research, which suggests that increased left frontal cortical activity is a neurophysiological index of BAS activity, the present research tested the hypotheses that proneness toward hypomania/mania symptoms would be related to increased relative left frontal activity and that proneness toward depression symptoms would be related to decreased relative left frontal activity in response to an anger-evoking event. Results from 67 individuals who had completed a measure of proneness toward these affective symptoms and were exposed to an anger-evoking event supported the hypotheses.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory After 50 Years of Development

Research and theoretical developments on the theory of cognitive dissonance are reviewed. After considering the self-consis- tency, self-affirmation, and aversive consequences revisions, the authors review research that has challenged each of the revisions and that supports the original version of the theory. Then, the authors review the action-based model of dissonance, which accepts the original theorys proposal that a sufficient cognitive inconsistency causes dissonance and extends the original theory by proposing why cognitive inconsistency prompts dissonance. Finally, the authors present results from experiments examining predictions derived from the action- based model and neural processes involved in dissonance reduction.

The effect of manipulated sympathy and anger on left and right frontal cortical activity.

The present research extended past research demonstrating that approach-motivated anger is associated with greater left than right frontal cortical activity. Because past research had examined difference scores between left and right frontal activity, it was unable to test whether approach-motivated anger increased left activity, decreased right activity, or both. In addition, the present research examined a potential moderator of the effect of insult on left frontal activity. That is, it tested whether sympathy for an insulting person would reduce the left frontal activity that occurs following being insulted. Results indicated that left frontal activity was increased and right frontal activity was decreased by the insult. Moreover, these effects were inhibited when high levels of sympathy were first aroused.

Left Frontal Cortical Activation and Spreading of Alternatives: Tests of the Action-Based Model of Dissonance

The action-based model of dissonance predicts that following decisional commitment, approach-oriented motivational processes occur to assist in translating the decision into effective and unconflicted behavior. Therefore, the modulation of these approach-oriented processes should affect the degree to which individuals change their attitudes to be more consistent with the decisional commitment (spreading of alternatives). Experiment 1 demonstrated that a neurofeedback-induced decrease in relative left frontal cortical activation, which has been implicated in approach motivational processes, caused a reduction in spreading of alternatives. Experiment 2 manipulated an action-oriented mindset following a decision and demonstrated that the action-oriented mindset caused increased activation in the left frontal cortical region as well as increased spreading of alternatives. Discussion focuses on how this integration of neuroscience and dissonance theory benefits both parent literatures.

PANAS Positive Activation Is Associated With Anger

As a prototypic negative emotion, anger would seem to have little in common with positive activation, as measured by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; D. Watson, L. A. Clark, & A. Tellegen, 1988). However, growing evidence suggests that both anger and positive affect are associated with approach motivation. This suggests the counterintuitive hypotheses that positive affect should be increased by anger-evoking situations, and that positive affect and anger should be directly correlated in such situations. Four studies tested and supported these hypotheses. Discussion focuses on the implications of these results.

What is Approach Motivation

We discuss some research that has examined approach motivational urges and how this research clarifies the definition of approach motivation. Our research and that of others have raised doubts about the commonly accepted definition of approach motivation, which views it as a positive affective state triggered by positive stimuli. We review evidence that suggests: (a) that approach motivation is occasionally evoked by negative stimuli; (b) that approach motivation may be experienced as a negative state; and (c) that stimuli are unnecessary to evoke approach motivation.