Clara Lázaro

Atmospheric Corrections for Altimetry Studies over Inland Water

Originally designed for applications over the ocean, satellite altimetry has been proven to be a useful tool for hydrologic studies. Altimeter products, mainly conceived for oceanographic studies, often fail to provide atmospheric corrections suitable for inland water studies. The focus of this paper is the analysis of the main issues related with the atmospheric corrections that need to be applied to the altimeter range to get precise water level heights. Using the corrections provided on the Radar Altimeter Database System, the main errors present in the dry and wet tropospheric corrections and in the ionospheric correction of the various satellites are reported. It has been shown that the model-based tropospheric corrections are not modeled properly and in a consistent way in the various altimetric products. While over the ocean, the dry tropospheric correction (DTC) is one of the most precise range corrections, in some of the present altimeter products, it is the correction with the largest errors over continental water regions, causing large biases of several decimeters, and along-track interpolation errors up to several centimeters, both with small temporal variations. The wet tropospheric correction (WTC) from the on-board microwave radiometers is hampered by the contamination on the radiometer measurements of the surrounding lands, making it usable only in the central parts of large lakes. In addition, the WTC from atmospheric models may also have large errors when it is provided at sea level instead of surface height. These errors cannot be corrected by the user, since no accurate expression exists for the height variation of the WTC. Alternative and accurate corrections can be computed from in situ data, e.g., DTC from surface pressure at barometric stations and WTC from Global Navigation Satellite System permanent stations. The latter approach is particularly favorable for small lakes and reservoirs, where GNSS-derived WTC at a single location can be representative of the whole lake. For non-timely critical studies, for consistency and stability, model-derived tropospheric corrections from European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) Re-Analysis ERA Interim, properly computed at surface height, are recommended. The instrument-based dual-frequency ionospheric correction may have errors related with the land contamination in the Ku and C/S bands, making it more suitable to use a model-based correction. The most suitable model-based ionospheric correction is the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) global ionosphere map (GIM) model, available after 1998, properly scaled to the altimeter height. Most altimeter products provide the GIM correction unreduced for the total electron content extending above the altitude of these satellites, thus overestimating the ionospheric correction by about 8%. Prior to 1998, the NIC09 (NOAA Ionosphere Climatology 2009) climatology provides the best accuracy.

Multiparameter monitoring of Fogo Island, Cape Verde, for volcanic risk mitigation

Fogo Island in the Cape Verde Archipelago (North Atlantic) is a stratovolcano of nearly conical shape that rises 2829 m above sea level and V6000 m above the surrounding seafloor. With a population of 40 000, the island has known intense historical volcanic activity since AD 1500, with an average interval between eruptions of the order of 20 years. Twentieth-century rates were more subdued, with only two flank eruptions in 1951 and 1995. Following the 1995 eruption, increased awareness of the volcanic hazard affecting the population of the island led to the deployment of the permanent VIGIL Network. Seismographic stations (both broadband and short-period), tiltmeters and a CO2 sensor where installed in Fogo, together with a telemetry infrastructure to allow remote real-time monitoring. A broadband seismographic station was installed in neighbour Brava Island. The operation of the network was complemented by the introduction of routine geodetic and microgravity surveying and the operation of an automatic meteorological station. In this paper, we describe the methodology adopted to monitor the volcanic activity, combining real-time data analysis (volcanotectonic and volcanic earthquakes, volcanic tremor and tilt) with repeated surveying at intervals of several months (GPS, microgravity). Examples of data from the first years of operation are presented. In particular, the data pertaining to a period of anomalous activity in September^October 2000 are discussed, in the context of the risk mitigation strategy currently being developed.

GNSS-Derived Path Delay: An Approach to Compute the Wet Tropospheric Correction for Coastal Altimetry

This letter presents an innovative method for computing the wet tropospheric correction for altimetry measurements in the coastal regions, where the measurements from the microwave radiometers (MWRs) onboard altimetric missions become invalid. The method, called Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)-derived Path Delay, gives an estimation of the correction, along with the associated mapping error, from the combination of independent zenith wet delay (ZWD) values obtained from the tropospheric delays derived at a network of coastal GNSS stations, from the MWR measurements acquired before land degradation, and from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Deterministic Atmospheric Model. The wet tropospheric correction is estimated at each altimeter point with an invalid MWR value using a linear space-time objective analysis technique that takes into account the spatial and temporal variability of the ZWD field and the accuracy of each data set used. The method was applied in the South West European region for the whole Envisat data series, and the results are presented here. The uncertainty of the wet-delay estimates is below 1 cm, provided they are obtained for points at distances shorter than ~ 50 km from a GNSS station, and/or valid MWR measurements are available for the estimation. The method can be implemented globally and foster the use of satellite altimetry in coastal studies.

Tropospheric Corrections for Coastal Altimetry

The altimeter range should be corrected for tropospheric path delays due to atmospheric pressure at sea level and atmospheric humidity. Over open ocean, these corrections are performed with enough accuracy using the microwave radiometer for the wet path delay and meteorological model analyses for the dry path delay. In coastal areas, specific studies are needed to assess the quality of the standard products and to propose specific processing if necessary. For the wet tropospheric correction, new promising approaches are presented based on optimal combination of radiometer, meteorological model, GNSS and land information. For the dry tropospheric correction, an assessment of the accuracy of the model-based estimation is provided.

GPD+ Wet Tropospheric Corrections for CryoSat-2 and GFO Altimetry Missions

Due to its large space-time variability, the wet tropospheric correction (WTC) is still considered a significant error source in satellite altimetry. This paper presents the GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) derived Path Delay Plus (GPD+), the most recent algorithm developed at the University of Porto to retrieve improved WTC for radar altimeter missions. The GPD+ are WTC estimated by space-time objective analysis, by combining all available observations in the vicinity of the point: valid measurements from the on-board microwave radiometer (MWR), from GNSS coastal and island stations and from scanning imaging MWR on board various remote sensing missions. The GPD+ corrections are available both for missions which do not possess an on-board microwave radiometer such as CryoSat-2 (CS-2) and for all missions which carry this sensor, by addressing the various error sources inherent to the MWR-derived WTC. To ensure long-term stability of the corrections, the large set of radiometers used in this study have been calibrated with respect to the Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) and the SSM/I Sounder (SSM/IS). The application of the algorithm to CS-2 and Geosat Follow-on (GFO), as representative altimetric missions without and with a MWR aboard the respective spacecraft, is described. Results show that, for both missions, the new WTC significantly reduces the sea level anomaly (SLA) variance with respect to the model-based corrections. For GFO, the new WTC also leads to a large reduction in SLA variance with respect to the MWR-derived WTC, recovering a large number of observations in the coastal and polar regions and full sets of tracks and several cycles when MWR measurements are missing or invalid. Overall, the algorithm allows the recovery of a significant number of measurements, ensuring the continuity and consistency of the correction in the open-ocean/coastal transition zone and at high latitudes.

Analysis and Inter-Calibration of Wet Path Delay Datasets to Compute the Wet Tropospheric Correction for CryoSat-2 over Ocean

Unlike most altimetric missions, CryoSat-2 is not equipped with an onboard microwave radiometer (MWR) to provide wet tropospheric correction (WTC) to radar altimeter measurements, thus, relying on a model-based one provided by the European Center for Medium-range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF). In the ambit of ESA funded project CP4O, an improved WTC for CryoSat-2 data over ocean is under development, based on a data combination algorithm (DComb) through objective analysis of WTC values derived from all existing global-scale data types. The scope of this study is the analysis and inter-calibration of the large dataset of total column water vapor (TCWV) products from scanning MWR aboard Remote Sensing (RS) missions for use in the WTC computation for CryoSat-2. The main issues regarding the computation of the WTC from all TCWV products are discussed. The analysis of the orbital parameters of CryoSat-2 and all other considered RS missions, their sensor characteristics and inter-calibration is presented, providing an insight into the expected impact of these datasets on the WTC estimation. The most suitable approach for calculating the WTC from TCWV is investigated. For this type of application, after calibration with respect to an appropriate reference, two approaches were found to give very similar results, with root mean square differences of 2 mm.

Satellite Altimetry: sailing closer to the coast

In this chapter we review the history of coastal altimetry. We illustrate the challenges associated with data processing, improvement and exploitation, including: (1) what altimeter data are available today and what are the issues in coastal zones; (2) what efforts are underway to fill the gaps in coastal altimetry and what still needs to be done; (3) how coastal altimetry can be used in support of coastal oceanography. After nearly two decades of data collection near coasts, the planned reprocessing of the multi-mission global record now appears to be necessary for full exploitation of satellite altimetry for coastal oceanography. We will focus on the European research efforts, in particular the main outcomes of the COASTALT project, by showcasing improved corrections (with special emphasis on the wet tropospheric effect), waveform analysis and novel retracking techniques, as well as the structure of the new processor for Envisat RA-2 coastal records. This is of interest to a broad range of data integrators who will be able to use the improved altimeter data in their operational products or services.

Assessment of Altimetric Range and Geophysical Corrections and Mean Sea Surface Models—Impacts on Sea Level Variability around the Indonesian Seas

The focus of this study is the assessment of the main range and geophysical corrections needed to derive accurate sea level time series from satellite altimetry in the Indonesia seas, the ultimate aim being the determination of sea level trend for this region. Due to its island nature, this is an area of large complexity for altimetric studies, a true laboratory for coastal altimetry. For this reason, the selection of the best corrections for sea level anomaly estimation from satellite altimetry is of particular relevance in the Indonesian seas. The same happens with the mean sea surface adopted in the sea level anomaly computation due to the large gradients of the mean sea surface in this part of the ocean. This study has been performed using altimetric data from the three reference missions, TOPEX/Poseidon, Jason-1 and Jason-2, extracted from the Radar Altimeter Database System. Analyses of sea level anomaly variance differences, function of distance from the coast and at altimeter crossovers were used to assess the quality of the various corrections and mean sea surface models. The selected set of corrections and mean sea surface have been used to estimate the sea level anomaly time series. The rate of sea level rise for the Indonesian seas was found to be 4.2 ± 0.2 mm/year over the 23-year period (1993–2015).

Sea level anomaly in the North Atlantic and seas around Europe: Long-term variability and response to North Atlantic teleconnection patterns

Sea level anomaly (SLA), provided globally by satellite altimetry, is considered a valuable proxy for detecting long-term changes of the global ocean, as well as short-term and annual variations. In this manuscript, monthly sea level anomaly grids for the period 1993-2013 are used to characterise the North Atlantic Ocean variability at inter-annual timescales and its response to the North Atlantic main patterns of atmospheric circulation variability (North Atlantic Oscillation, Eastern Atlantic, Eastern Atlantic/Western Russia, Scandinavian and Polar/Eurasia) and main driven factors as sea level pressure, sea surface temperature and wind fields. SLA variability and long-term trends are analysed for the North Atlantic Ocean and several sub-regions (North, Baltic and Mediterranean and Black seas, Bay of Biscay extended to the west coast of the Iberian Peninsula, and the northern North Atlantic Ocean), depicting the SLA fluctuations at basin and sub-basin scales, aiming at representing the regions of maximum sea level variability. A significant correlation between SLA and the different phases of the teleconnection patterns due to the generated winds, sea level pressure and sea surface temperature anomalies, with a strong variability on temporal and spatial scales, has been identified. Long-term analysis reveals the existence of non-stationary inter-annual SLA fluctuations in terms of the temporal scale. Spectral density analysis has shown the existence of long-period signals in the SLA inter-annual component, with periods of ~10, 5, 4 and 2years, depending on the analysed sub-region. Also, a non-uniform increase in sea level since 1993 is identified for all sub-regions, with trend values between 2.05mm/year, for the Bay of Biscay region, and 3.98mm/year for the Baltic Sea (no GIA correction considered). The obtained results demonstrated a strong link between the atmospheric patterns and SLA, as well as strong long-period fluctuations of this variable in spatial and temporal scales.

Independent Assessment of Sentinel-3A Wet Tropospheric Correction over the Open and Coastal Ocean

Launched on 16 February 2016, Sentinel-3A (S3A) carries a two-band microwave radiometer (MWR) similar to that of Envisat, and is aimed at the precise retrieval of the wet tropospheric correction (WTC) through collocated measurements using the Synthetic Aperture Radar Altimeter (SRAL) instrument. This study aims at presenting an independent assessment of the WTC derived from the S3A MWR over the open and coastal ocean. Comparisons with other four MWRs show Root Mean Square (RMS) differences (cm) of S3A with respect to these sensors of 1.0 (Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Microwave Imager, GMI), 1.2 (Jason-2), 1.3 (Jason-3), and 1.5 (Satellite with ARgos and ALtika (SARAL)). The linear fit with respect to these MWR shows scale factors close to 1 and small offsets, indicating a good agreement between all these sensors. In spite of the short analysis period of 10 months, a stable temporal evolution of the S3A WTC has been observed. In line with the similar two-band instruments aboard previous European Space Agency (ESA) altimetric missions, strong ice and land contamination can be observed, the latter mainly found up to 20–25 km from the coast. Comparisons with the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) and an independent WTC derived only from third party data are also shown, indicating good overall performance. However, improvements in both the retrieval algorithm and screening of invalid MWR observations are desirable to achieve the quality of the equivalent WTC from Jason-3. The outcome of this study is a deeper knowledge of the measurement capabilities and limitations of the type of MWR aboard S3A and of the present WTC retrieval algorithms.