Claude Delsert

Development of a PCR procedure for the detection of a herpes-like virus infecting oysters in France.

A PCR-based procedure for detecting a herpes-like virus that infects the Japanese oyster, Crassostrea gigas, in France was developed. Two primers were designed to provide specific amplification products ranging in size from 917 to 1001 bp when carried out on oyster herpes-like virus DNA. No amplification was observed of oyster genomic DNA nor of the DNA from vertebrate herpesviruses. Crude samples were prepared and submitted to nested PCR, allowing amplification of DNA fragments of the expected size when carried out on infected larval and spat samples. The procedure used to prepare the sample for PCR was found to be critical because of the presence of unidentified substances in oyster tissues that inhibit the PCR reaction. A rapid and convenient sample preparation using ground tissues allowed a sensitive detection of the herpes-like virus infected oysters. The ability of the defined PCR protocol to diagnose herpes-like virus infections in oysters was compared to the transmission electron microscopy technique using 15 C. gigas larval batches with or without mortalities. PCR amplification is as sensitive a diagnostic assay for herpes-like virus as transmission electron microscopy. However, the nested PCR protocol is more convenient and less time consuming. The relationship between reported mortalities among C. gigas oyster spat and herpes-like virus DNA detection by PCR was also investigated. Statistical analysis showed that virus detection and mortalities are correlated. This observation highlights the importance of studying the causative role of herpes-like virus in oyster spat mortalities.

A novel p21-activated kinase binds the actin and microtubule networks and induces microtubule stabilization

Coordination of the different cytoskeleton networks in the cell is of central importance for morphogenesis, organelle transport, and motility. The Rho family proteins are well characterized for their effects on the actin cytoskeleton, but increasing evidence indicates that they may also control microtubule (MT) dynamics. Here, we demonstrate that a novel Cdc42/Rac effector, X-p21-activated kinase (PAK)5, colocalizes and binds to both the actin and MT networks and that its subcellular localization is regulated during cell cycle progression. In transfected cells, X-PAK5 promotes the formation of stabilized MTs that are associated in bundles and interferes with MTs dynamics, slowing both the elongation and shrinkage rates and inducing long paused periods. X-PAK5 subcellular localization is regulated tightly, since coexpression with active Rac or Cdc42 induces its shuttling to actin-rich structures. Thus, X-PAK5 is a novel MT-associated protein that may communicate between the actin and MT networks during cellular responses to environmental conditions.

Regulation of Xenopus p21-activated Kinase (X-PAK2) by Cdc42 and Maturation-promoting Factor Controls Xenopus Oocyte Maturation

Signal transduction cascades involved in regulation of the cell cycle machinery are poorly understood. In theXenopus oocyte model, meiotic maturation is triggered by MPF, a complex of p34cdc2-cyclin B, which is activated in response to a progesterone signal by largely unknown mechanisms. We have previously shown that the p21-activated kinase (PAK) family negatively regulates the MPF amplification loop. In this study, we identify the endogenous PAK2 as a key enzyme in this regulation and describe the pathways by which PAK2 is regulated. We show that the small GTPase Cdc42 is required for maintenance of active endogenous X-PAK2 in resting stage VI oocytes, whereas Rac1 is not involved in this regulation. During the process of maturation, X-PAK2 phosphorylation results in its inactivation and allows maturation to proceed to completion. Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase and cyclin B-p34cdc2 is coincident with X-PAK2 inactivation, and purified active MPF inhibits X-PAK2, demonstrating the existence of a new positive feedback loop. Our results confirm and extend the importance of p21-activated kinases in the control of the G2/M transition. We hypothesize that the X-PAK2/Cdc42 pathway could link p34cdc2 activity to the major cytoskeleton rearrangements leading to spindle migration and anchorage to the animal pole cortex.

Control of G2/M Transition in Xenopus by a Member of the p21-activated Kinase (PAK) Family: A Link Between Protein Kinase A and PAK Signaling Pathways?

X-PAKs are involved in negative control of the process of oocyte maturation in Xenopus (1). In the present study, we define more precisely the events targetted by the kinase in the inhibition of the G2/M transition. We show that microinjection of recombinant X-PAK1-Cter active kinase into progesterone-treated oocytes prevents c-Mos accumulation and activation of both MAPK and maturation-promoting factor (MPF). In conditions permissive for MAPK activation, MPF activation still fails. We demonstrate that a constitutive truncated version of X-PAK1 (X-PAK1-Cter) does not prevent the association of cyclin B with p34 cdc2 but rather prevents the activation of the inactive complexes present in the oocyte. Proteins participating in the MPF amplification loop, including the Cdc25-activating Polo-like kinase are all blocked. Indeed, using active MPF, the amplification loop is not turned on in the presence of X-PAK1. Our results indicate that X-PAK and protein kinase A targets in the control of oocyte maturation are similar and furthermore that this negative regulation is not restricted to meiosis, because we demonstrate that G2/M progression is also prevented in Xenopus cycling extracts in the presence of active X-PAK1.

Subgroup II PAK-mediated phosphorylation regulates Ran activity during mitosis

Phosphorylation of the Ran GTPase on Serine-135 by PAK4 changes Ran’s association with its regulatory proteins and its ability to induce microtubule asters.

P21-activated kinase 4 (PAK4) is required for metaphase spindle positioning and anchoring

The oncogenic kinase PAK4 was recently found to be involved in the regulation of the G1 phase and the G2/M transition of the cell cycle. We have also identified that PAK4 regulates Ran GTPase activity during mitosis. Here, we show that after entering mitosis, PAK4-depleted cells maintain a prolonged metaphase-like state. In these cells, chromosome congression to the metaphase plate occurs with normal kinetics but is followed by an extended period during which membrane blebbing and spindle rotation are observed. These bipolar PAK4-depleted metaphase-like spindles have a defective astral microtubule (MT) network and are not centered in the cell but are in close contact with the cell cortex. As the metaphase-like state persists, centrosome fragmentation occurs, chromosomes scatter from the metaphase plate and move toward the spindle poles with an active spindle assembly checkpoint, a phenotype that is reminiscent of cohesion fatigue. PAK4 also regulates the acto-myosin cytoskeleton and we report that PAK4 depletion results in the induction of cortical membrane blebbing during prometaphase arrest. However, we show that membrane blebs, which are strongly enriched in phospho-cofilin, are not responsible for the poor anchoring of the spindle. As PAK4 depletion interferes with the localization of components of the dynein/dynactin complexes at the kinetochores and on the astral MTs, we propose that loss of PAK4 could induce a change in the activities of motor proteins.

Structural and functional properties of HIV-1GER TAR sequences

Sequencing of HIV-1GER long terminal repeat (LTR) has demonstrated, for the first time in an HIV-1 primary isolate, a TAR duplication refered to as TAR1 (nucleotides +1 through +68) and TAR2 (nucleotides +69 through +136). This TAR duplication is stable during replication of HIV-1GER isolate in CEM cells. Analysis of LTR-CAT reporter constructs demonstrated that under Tat transactivation the HIV-1GER/LTR (containing TAR1 and TAR2) was expressed at a higher level than a similar construct (HIV-1GERΔTAR) containing a single TAR sequence. Among the two transcription initiation sites found in the HIV-1GER/LTR, only the most 5′ start site was shown to be functionally active. The predicted secondary structure of the 5′-end mRNAs of HIV-1GER suggests it may fold into a double TAR hairpin which resembles that of HIV-2. Finally, HIV-1GER Tat protein shows primary sequence similarity with Tat proteins from other isolates of HIV-1 and is apparently unrelated to HIV-2 Tat proteins. This work provides the first evidence of a TAR sequence duplication in HIV-1 which increases the efficiency of transactivation by Tat.

Rapid and sensitive method for the detection of B19 virus DNA using the polymerase chain reaction with nested primers

The sensitivity of detection of B19 virus DNA in clinical specimens was evaluated by comparing the results of single PCR and nested PCR assays, with or without subsequent Southern blot hybridization to a radiolabelled B19 DNA probe. The inhibitory activity of human serum components on polymerase reaction was also determined. The sensitivity of B19 virus DNA detection decreased by a factor of 10(7) in the presence of 10% serum in the single PCR reaction mixture, and of 10(3) for nested PCR. When nested PCR products were analysed by Southern blot hybridization to a B19 radioactive DNA probe, the sensitivity of the assay increased to such a level of B19 DNA detection that the reaction was no longer influenced by the presence of serum inhibitors in the original sample. Less than ten B19 genome copies could thus be detected in a 10-microliters sample. A panel of 38 clinical samples, originating from patients with possibility of B19 virus infection, were assayed by this method. Only one sample was found to be positive after single PCR, whereas seven samples (including the former) gave a positive signal after nested PCR. The specificity of the nested PCR products was controlled by hybridization to the B19 DNA probe and DNA sequencing. No discrepancy in the results was observed between nested PCR alone and nested PCR followed by Southern blot analysis.

An adenovirus cytocidal function related to the control of a cellular pH 4 endonuclease activity.

An adenovirus (Ad) interserotypic recombinant (H2cyt141) between temperature-sensitive mutant H2ts111 of Ad2 and deletion mutant H5dl313 of Ad5 was isolated and characterized. It was phenotypically ts+, dl+, hr+ and formed large plaques (or cytocidal: cyt). It contained the right 89% of Ad5 DNA and the leftmost 11% of Ad2 DNA. Genetic recombination data suggested the cytocidal mutation lay in the transforming region E1B, confirming sequence analysis. The cytocidal effect resulted in part from the breakdown of cellular DNA. Host cell and virus DNA breakdown induced by H2cyt141 appeared cell-dependent: it occurred in HeLa, KB or BHK-21 cells, but not in CV1 or 293 cells. In human cells the cyt effect was recessive and adenovirus DNA degradation was prevented by co-infection with adenovirus wild-type (H2WT), other adenovirus serotypes or simian virus 40 (SV40). In simian cells, H2cyt141 did not inhibit SV40 DNA replication, unlike H2WT. The amount of H2cyt141 DNA integrated in human cell DNA at early stages of the lytic cycle was found to be significantly lower than for H2WT. Novobiocin inhibited viral DNA breakdown in human cells. Cellular DNA extracted from H2cyt141-infected cells exhibited a repeat band pattern in gel electrophoresis reminiscent of the nuclease digestion pattern of chromatin, with monosome-size fragments as the digestion limit. The H2cyt141-induced nucleolytic effect would therefore occur in the linker regions of cell DNA and might result from the observed stimulation (by a factor of greater than 100) of an acidic (optimum pH 4.0) endonuclease activity. The nucleolytic effect also appeared to be recessive in vitro and absent in mixed samples containing extracts from H2cyt141-infected cells plus extracts from H2WT- or mock-infected cells. The virus gene product responsible for the enhancement of the acidic endonuclease was found to function stoichiometrically and not catalytically. The cytocidal and nucleolytic effects of the viral E1B region 19K protein may be mediated by a cellular inhibitor of acidic endonuclease.

Early gametogenesis in the Pacific oyster: new insights using stem cell and mitotic markers

ABSTRACT While our knowledge of bivalve gametogenesis has progressed in recent times, more molecular markers are needed in order to develop tissue imaging. Here, we identified stem cell and mitotic markers to further characterize oyster early gametogenesis, mainly through immunofluorescence microscopy. Intense alkaline phosphatase activity, a non-specific marker for stem cells, was detected on the outer edge of the gonad ducts at the post-spawning stage, suggesting an abundance of undifferentiated cells very early during the sexual cycle. This observation was confirmed using an antibody against Sox2, a transcription factor specific for stem or germline cells, which labeled cells in the gonad duct inner mass and ciliated epithelium early during the initial oyster sexual cycle. Moreover, Vasa, a cytoplasmic marker for germline cells, was also detected in the gonad acini and duct cells, thus confirming that germline cells were abundant early on. In addition, the binding of the minichromosome maintenance MCM6 protein to chromatin indicated the gonad acini and duct cells were engaged in the cell cycle. DNA replication was indeed confirmed by an abundant in vivo incorporation of BrdU into the duct cell chromatin. Finally, proliferation of acini and duct cells was demonstrated by the chromatin-bound Ser10-phosphorylated histone H3, a mitotic marker. The markers for the cell cycle and mitosis used here thus indicate that acini and duct cells were already actively dividing early during the oyster sexual cycle. In addition, together with the stem cell markers, these data reveal that the epithelium delimiting the duct outer edge contains a dynamic population of undifferentiated cells. Summary: Alkaline phosphatase activity and immunochemistry reveal that oyster germline cells are located in the gonad duct outer edge during the resting period and proliferate very early during the next sexual cycle.