Claudette Mariné

The attention-guiding effect and cognitive load in the comprehension of animations

To be effective, instructional animations should avoid causing high extraneous cognitive load imposed by the high attentional requirements of selecting and processing relevant elements. In accordance with the attention-guiding principle (Betrancourt, 2005), a study was carried out concerning the impact of cueing on cognitive load and comprehension of animations which depicted a dynamic process in a neurobiology domain. Cueing consisted of zooming in important information at each step of the process. Thirty-six undergraduate psychology students were exposed to an animation three times. Half of the participants received an animation without cueing while the other half received the same animation with cueing. Measures of cognitive load and comprehension performance (questions on isolated elements and on high-element interactivity material) were administered twice, after one and three exposures to the animation. The analyses revealed two main results. First, extraneous cognitive load was reduced by cueing after three exposures. Second, retention of the isolated elements was improved in both animation groups, whereas comprehension of high-element interactive material (i.e., the causal relations between elements) increased only in the cueing condition. Furthermore, a problem solving task showed that cueing supported the development of a more elaborate mental model.

Prior knowledge in learning from a non-linear electronic document: Disorientation and coherence of the reading sequences

Abstract A study was carried out to investigate the effects of prior knowledge on learning with a non-linear electronic document including an interactive conceptual map. Cognitive Load Theory was used as theoretical framework to investigate effects on cognitive load and disorientation in learning from non-linear documents. Forty-four future high school biology teachers were required to learn the multiplication cycle of a virus from either a hierarchical structure (organisational links) or a network structure (relational links). For the low prior knowledge learners, the results showed that the hierarchical structure supported better free recall performance and reduced feelings of disorientation. In contrast, the high prior knowledge learners performed better and followed more coherent reading sequences in the network structure. However, no interaction effect between prior knowledge and the type of structure was observed on mental effort and disorientation ratings. The results and the construct of disorientation are discussed in light of the processing demands in non-linear documents.

Pertinence generation in radiological diagnosis: Spreading activation and the nature of expertise

An empirical study of human expert reasoning processes is presented. Its purpose is to test a model of how a human expert’s cognitive system learns to detect, and does detect, pertinent data and hypotheses. This process is called pertinence generation. The model is based on the phenomenon of spreading activation within semantic networks. Twenty-two radiologists were asked to produce diagnoses from two very difficult X-ray films. As the model predicted, pertinence increased with experience and with semantic network integration. However, the experts whose daily work involved explicit reasoning were able, in addition, to go beyond and to generate more pertinence. The results suggest that two qualitatively different kinds of expertise, basic and super, should be distinguished. A reinterpretation of the results of Lesgold et al. (1988) is proposed, suggesting that apparent nonmonotonicities in performance ore not representative of common radiological expertise acquisition but result from the inclusion of basic and super expertise on the same curve.

Testing the descriptive validity of possibility theory in human judgments of uncertainty

Many works in the past showed that human judgments of uncertainty do not conform very well to probability theory. The present paper reports four experiments that were conducted in order to evaluate if human judgments of uncertainty conform better to possibility theory. At first, two experiments investigate the descriptive properties of some basic possibilistic measures. Then a new measurement apparatus is used, the Ψ-scale, to compare possibilistic vs. probabilistic disjunction and conjunction. Results strongly suggest that a human judgment is qualitative in essence, closer to a possibilistic than to a probabilistic approach of uncertainly. The paper also describes a qualitative heuristic, for conjunction, which was used by expert radiologists.

Interaction between prior knowledge and concept-map structure on hypertext comprehension, coherence of reading orders and disorientation

The study examined the interaction effects of prior knowledge and hypertexts structure (network vs. hierarchy) on comprehension. Comprehension was investigated analyzing jointly three dependent variables: comprehension outcomes, coherence of the reading sequences and feelings of disorientation. The results supported most of the assumptions showing an interaction effect on each measure. For low prior knowledge readers, a hierarchical structure improved comprehension performance, helped them to follow coherent reading sequences and reduced their feelings of disorientation. For high prior knowledge readers, comprehension performance and feelings of disorientation were not affected by the type of structure. Moreover, prior knowledge was a relevant resource to cope with the cognitive requirements of reading non-linear texts. In the network condition, prior knowledge supported better comprehension, led the readers to follow more coherent reading sequences and limited their feelings of disorientation. The discussion dealt with processes based on prior knowledge involved in hypertext comprehension, and stressed the need for conducting further investigations on the nature of the on-line inferences and on relations between performance, navigation and disorientation.

Query strategies during information searching

Three complexity levels of information problems are defined related to psychology domain.40 students in psychology and in other domains performed information problems with an online encyclopedia.Students in psychology performed better than the others, especially for complex problems.Students in psychologies used more relevant strategies than the others.These expertise-related differences are stronger for the complex problems. This study addresses the impact of domain expertise (i.e. of prior knowledge of the domain) on the performance and query strategies used by users while searching for information. Twenty-four experts (psychology students) and 24 non-experts (students from other disciplines) had to search for psychology information from the Universalis website in order to perform six information problems of varying complexity: two simple problems (the keywords required to complete the task were provided in the problem statement), two more difficult problems (the keywords required had to be inferred) and two impossible problems (no answer was provided by the website). The results showed that participants with prior knowledge in the domain (experts in psychology) performed better (i.e. reached more correct answers after shorter search times) than non-experts. This difference was stronger as the complexity of the problems increased. This study also showed that experts and non-experts displayed different query strategies. Experts reformulated the impossible problems more often than non-experts, because they produced new queries with psychology-related keywords. The participants rarely used thematic category tool and when they did so this did not enhance their performance.

MASTERY AND CHALLENGE SEEKING : TWO DIMENSIONS WITHIN LEARNING GOALS?

The study examined the existence of two distinct dimensions within learning goals: A mastery dimension and a challenge seeking dimension. A French version of Roedel, Schraw, and Plakes (1994) Goals Inventory was administered to 305 psychology undergraduates. Confirmatory factor analyses testing a two-factor vs. a three-factor measurement model supported the distinction between the two dimensions of learning goals. Relations between goal orientations and reported strategy use and self-regulation were analyzed. The mastery and challenge dimensions within learning goals were differentially related to performance goals and strategy use.

Techniques d'évaluation de la métacognition. I Les mesures indépendantes de l'exécution de tâches. II Les mesures dépendantes de l'exécution de tâches

In this paper, independent measures in metacognitive assessment are reviewed. These measures aim to investigate the metacognitive knowledge that a subject possesses about his or her own cognitive limits. The measures are characterized by data collected without concurrent cognitive assessment. Verbal measures (interview, questionnaire), measures involving devices supporting verbalization and nonverbal measures are distinguished. The interests and limits of independent measures are discussed, with emphasis on the metacognition-cognition relationship.

Comprendre des documents non-linéaires : quelles ressources apportées par les connaissances antérieures ?

EnglishThe current paper exposes a state of the art about works dealing with effects of learners� prior domain knowledge on comprehension and learning from non-linear documents (e.g. hypertexts). The inventory of results which is organized according to three dimensions (performance, navigation, disorientation) leads to a set of convergent conclusions as well as to divergent conclusions. Prior knowledge provides resources to process non-linearity of documents. That is reflected by higher performance and navigation behaviors characterized by a higher level of elaboration. Nevertheless, studies focusing on nature of mental representations or constructed knowledge indicated a set of inconsistent results like results about disorientation. From this observation, limits, methodological and theoretical requirements are discussed. In conclusion, the necessity to conduct further research on relations between navigation, comprehension and dynamic of processes is stressed. francaisL�article presente un etat de l�art des travaux etudiant les effets des connaissances anterieures du domaine des apprenants sur la comprehension et l�apprentissage avec des documents non-lineaires (ex. hypertexte). Le recensement des resultats organise selon trois dimensions (performance, navigation, desorientation) permet d�aboutir a un ensemble de conclusions convergentes mais aussi divergentes. Les connaissances anterieures offrent des ressources importantes pour le traitement de la non-linearite des documents se traduisant par de meilleures performances ainsi que des comportements de navigation caracterises par un certain niveau d�elaboration. En revanche, l�etude de la nature des representations ou connaissances construites aboutit a un ensemble de resultats inconsistants au meme titre que les resultats sur la desorientation des apprenants. Sur la base de ce constat, les limites et besoins methodologiques comme theoriques sont discutes. En conclusion l�accent est mis sur la necessite d�approfondir l�analyse des liens existants entre navigation, comprehension et la dynamique des processus.

Memory strategies and metamemory knowledge under memory demands change in waiters learners

This study aims to examine how adults use memory strategies when memory demands change and how it depends on metamemory and may account for individual differences. Metamemory about strategy was assessed by interview in forty waiters learners. Then, they were asked to execute a simulated beverage-service task (three successive recalls) for which memory demands were manipulated with table size and perceptive cues. At last, working memory span was assessed. Results revealed a significant contribution of the various variables (memory demands, metamemory knowledge, span) on recall performances when the three different recalls were considered as separated. By contrast, the four strategy patterns observed on this sample could not be distinguished neither according to metamemory knowledge nor as a function of performance. The issue about the individual differences in strategy efficiency is explored by pointing out methodological limits. Moreover, the non linear progression of performance with the increase in the level of elaborative strategy use is discussed.RésuméL’objet de cette recherche consiste à examiner les modalités de régulation de l’activité d’adultes sous l’effet de changements de contraintes mnémoniques. La variabilité interindividuelle des modalités de régulation est examinée en relation avec les connaissances métamnémoniques. Les métaconnaissances stratégiques ont été évaluées par entretien individuel auprès de 40 apprentis en formation professionnelle de serveur. Puis, les sujets réalisaient successivement trois rappels dans une tache simulée de servive de boissons dans laquelle les exigences mnémoniques étaient manipulées par le nombre de clients à servir et par la présence ou non d’indices perceptifs. Enfin, l’empan en mémoire de travail était évalué. Les résultats font apparaître une contribution significative des différentes variables (contraintes mnémoniques, métaconnaissances stratégiques, empan) aux variations de performances lorsque les différents types de rappels sont considérés séparément. En revanche, les patterns de stratégies constatés ne sont liés ni aux connaissances métamnémoniques, ni à la performance. Le constat de différences individuelles dans l’efficacité d’une même stratégie est discuté en liaison avec les limites méthodologiques de l’étude. En outre, la discussion aborde la question de la progression non linéaire des performances avec l’augmentation du niveau d’élaboration des stratégies.