Claudia Cenedese

A dense current flowing down a sloping bottom in a rotating fluid

A density-driven current was generated in the laboratory by releasing dense fluid over a sloping bottom in a rotating freshwater system. The behavior of the dense fluid descending the slope has been investigated by systematically varying four parameters: the rotation rate, the bottom slope, the flow rate of the dense fluid, and the density of the dense fluid. Over a wide range of parameter values, the following three flow types were found: a laminar regime in which the dense current had a constant thickness behind the head, a wave regime in which wavelike disturbances appeared on the interface between the dense and fresh fluids, and an eddy regime in which periodic formation of cyclonic eddies in the fresh overlying ambient fluid was observed. All of the experiments revealed that increasing the slope angle and the density of the bottom fluid allowed the flow to evolve from the laminar to the wave regime. Furthermore, increasing rotation rate induced the formation of eddies. A theoretical solution for the downslope velocity field has been found using a steady-state model. Comparison between the theoretical and experimental downslope velocities gave good agreement. The wave regime was observed to occur for values of the Froude number greater than 1. The laminar regime was found for values of the Froude number less than 1. The amount of mixing between the dense and the ambient fluids was measured. Mixing increased significantly when passing from the laminar to the wave regime, that is, with increasing Froude number. Good agreement between the amount of mixing observed in the ocean and in the laboratory experiments is encouraging and makes the waves observed in the present experiments a possible candidate for the mixing observed during oceanic dense current overflows.

Mixing in a density-driven current flowing down a slope in a rotating fluid

We discuss laboratory experiments investigating mixing in a density-driven current flowing down a sloping bottom, in a rotating homogenous fluid. A systematic study spanning a wide range of Froude, 0.8 <F r <10, and Reynolds, 10 <R e <1400, numbers was conducted by varying three parameters: the bottom slope; the flow rate; and the density of the dense fluid. Different flow regimes were observed, i.e. waves (non-breaking and breaking) and turbulent regimes, while changing the above parameters. Mixing in the density-driven current has been quantified within the observed regimes, and at different locations on the slope. The dependence of mixing on the relevant non-dimensional numbers, i.e. slope, Fr and Re ,i s discussed. The entrainment parameter, E, was found to be dependent not only on Fr , as assumed in previous studies, but also on Re. In particular, mixing increased with increasing Fr and Re. For low Fr and Re, the magnitude of the mixing was comparable to mixing in the ocean. For large Fr and Re, mixing was comparable to that observed in previous laboratory experiments that exhibited the classic turbulent entrainment behaviour.

A new parameterization for entrainment in overflows

Abstract Dense overflows entrain surrounding waters at specific locations, for example, sills and constrictions, but also along the descent over the continental slope. The amount of entrainment dictates the final properties of these overflows, and thus is of fundamental importance to the understanding of the formation of deep water masses. Even when resolving the overflows, coarse resolution global circulation and climate models cannot resolve the entrainment processes that are often parameterized. A new empirical parameterization is suggested, obtained using an oceanic and laboratory dataset, which includes two novel aspects. First, the parameterization depends on both the Froude number (Fr) and Reynolds number of the flow. Second, it takes into account subcritical (Fr < 1) entrainment. A weak, but nonzero, entrainment can change the final density and, consequently, the depth and location of important water masses in the open ocean. This is especially true when the dense current follows a long path over ...

The Relationship between Flux Coefficient and Entrainment Ratio in Density Currents

Abstract The authors explore the theoretical and empirical relationship between the nonlocal quantities of the entrainment ratio E, the appropriately depth- and time-averaged flux coefficient Γ, and the bulk Froude number Fro in density currents. The main theoretical result is that E = 0.125 Γ Fro2(CU3/CL)/cosθ, where θ is the angle of the slope over which the density current flows, CL is the ratio the turbulent length scale to the depth of the density current, and CU is the ratio of the turbulent velocity scale to the mean velocity of the density current. In the case of high bulk Froude numbers Γ ∼ Fro−2 and (CU3/CL) = Cϵ ∼ 1, so E ∼ 0.1, consistent with observations of a constant entrainment ratio in unstratified jets and weakly stratified plumes. For bulk Froude numbers close to one, Γ is constant and has a value in the range of 0.1–0.3, which means that E ∼ Fro2, again in agreement with observations and previous experiments. For bulk Froude numbers less than one, Γ decreases rapidly with bulk Froude n...

Eddy Shedding from a Boundary Current around a Cape over a Sloping Bottom

Abstract The authors discuss laboratory experiments that elucidate the mechanism of formation and westward drift of anticyclonic baroclinic vortices from a buoyant surface current flowing along a lateral boundary and around a cape. Experiments were carried out with a sloping bottom in order to simulate the topographic β effect. They showed how a vortex can be generated from the current where it separates and reattaches to the cape and that, under some conditions, the eddy is able to detach from the cape and drift westward following isobaths. Two important timescales regulate the flow: the time tf that the current takes to generate a vortex and the time td that the vortex takes to drift westward for a distance equal to its radius. When these two timescales are either of the same order of magnitude or tf td the vortex was able to form at the cape but it did not detach and drift westward. The influence of the depth of the lower layer, h0, on the flo...

Laboratory Experiments on Eddy Generation by a Buoyant Coastal Current Flowing over Variable Bathymetry

Irminger rings are warm-core eddies formed off the west coast of Greenland. Recent studies suggest that these eddies, which are implicated in the rapid springtime restratification of the Labrador Sea, are formed by an internal instability of the West Greenland Current (WGC), triggered by bathymetric variations. This study seeks to explore the effect of the magnitude and downstream length scale of bathymetric variations on the stability of a simple model of the WGC in a series of laboratory experiments in which a buoyant coastal current was allowed to flow over bathymetry consisting of piecewise constant slopes of varying magnitude. The currents did not form eddies over gently sloping bathymetry and only formed eddies over steep bathymetry if the current width exceeded the width of the sloping bathymetry. Eddying currents were immediately stabilized if they flowed onto gently sloping topography. Bathymetric variations that persisted only a short distance downstream perturbed the flow locally but did not lead to eddy formation. Eddies formed only once the downstream length of the bathymetric variations exceeded a critical scale of about 8 Rossby radii. These results are consistent with the observed behavior of the WGC, which begins to form Irminger rings after entering a region where the continental slope abruptly steepens and becomes narrower than the WGC itself in a region spanning about 20–80 Rossby radii of downstream distance.

Cyclone and anticyclone formation in a rotating stratified fluid over a sloping bottom

We discuss laboratory experiments with a continuous source or sink of fluid in a two-layer rotating environment which produces anticyclonic and cyclonic vortices, respectively. Experiments were carried out with a sloping bottom in order to simulate the -eect and they were conducted for dierent values for the source/sink flow rate Q and the Coriolis parameter f. The Rossby number Ro of these vortices was small but nite and the flow was expected to be quasi-geostrophic. The qualitative behaviour of the anticyclonic and cyclonic vortices was generally similar, but it depended on the flow rate. For low flow rates, a single vortex formed at the source and extended to the west. At higher flow rates, the vortex broke free from the source and moved to the west; this vortex was then followed sequentially by other vortices behaving similarly. The westward velocity U of these vortices was calculated and compared with the speed Us of a linear topographic Rossby wave. For multiple vortices the westward velocities were greater than Us while for a single vortex produced by a low flow rate the velocity was less than Us. Signicant asymmetry between the anticyclonic and cyclonic vortices was observed in the transition zone from single to multiple vortices which implies that ageostrophic eects were still present in the flow.

Structure and dynamics of a subglacial discharge plume in a Greenlandic Fjord

Discharge of surface-derived meltwater at the submerged base of Greenlands marine-terminating glaciers creates subglacial discharge plumes that rise along the glacier/ocean interface. These plumes impact submarine melting, calving and fjord circulation. Observations of plume properties and dynamics are challenging due to their proximity to the calving edge of glaciers. Therefore to date information on these plumes has been largely derived from models. Here we present temperature, salinity, and velocity data collected in a plume that surfaced at the edge of Saqqarliup Sermia, a mid-sized Greenlandic glacier. The plume is associated with a narrow core of rising waters approximately 20 m in diameter at the ice edge that spreads to a 200 m by 300 m plume pool as it reaches the surface, before descending to its equilibrium depth. Volume flux estimates indicate that the plume is primarily driven by subglacial discharge and that this has been diluted in a ratio of 1:10 by the time the plume reaches the surface. While highly uncertain, meltwater fluxes are likely two orders of magnitude smaller than the subglacial discharge flux. The overall plume characteristics agree with those predicted by theoretical plume models for a convection driven plume with limited influence from submarine melting. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Stability of a buoyancy-driven coastal current at the shelf break

Buoyancy-driven surface currents were generated in the laboratory by releasing buoyant fluid from a source adjacent to a vertical boundary in a rotating container. Dierent bottom topographies that simulate both a continental slope and a continental ridge were introduced in the container. The topography modied the flow in comparison with the flat bottom case where the current grew in width and depth until it became unstable once to non-axisymmetric disturbances. However, when topography was introduced a second instability of the buoyancy-driven current was observed. The most important parameter describing the flow is the ratio of continental shelf width W to the width L of the current at the onset of the instability. The values of L for the rst instability, and L W for the second instability were not influenced by the topography and were 2{6 times the Rossby radius. Thus, the parameter describing the flow can be expressed as the ratio of the width of the continental shelf to the Rossby radius. When this ratio is larger than 2{6 the second instability was observed on the current front. A continental ridge allowed the disturbance to grow to larger amplitude with formation of eddies and fronts, while a gentle continental slope reduced the growth rate and amplitude of the most unstable mode, when compared to the continental ridge topography. When present, eddies did not separate from the main current, and remained near the shelf break. On the other hand, for the largest values of the Rossby radius the rst instability was suppressed and the flow was observed to remain stable. A small but signicant variation was found in the wavelength of the rst instability, which was smaller for a current over topography than over a flat bottom.

An experimental study of a mesoscale vortex colliding with topography of varying geometry in a rotating fluid

The interaction of a self-propagating barotropic cyclonic vortex with an obstacle has been investigated and the conditions for a vortex to bifurcate into two vortices determined. As in a previous study, after a self-propagating cyclonic vortex came into contact with the obstacle, fluid peeled off the outer edge of the vortex and a so-called “streamer” went around the obstacle in a counterclockwise direction. Under certain conditions, this fluid formed a new cyclonic vortex in the wake of the obstacle, causing bifurcation of the original vortex into two vortices. In the present study we performed three sets of idealized laboratory experiments with the aim of investigating the importance on the bifurcation mechanism of the obstacle’s horizontal cross sectional geometry, the influence of the height of the obstacle, and the importance of the slope of the obstacle sidewalls. The present results suggest that bifurcation occurs only when the obstacle height is equal or larger than 85% of the vortex height and that steep sloping sidewalls do not influence the bifurcation mechanism. In addition, experiments performed using an obstacle with an elliptical horizontal cross section revealed that the relevant parameter governing the occurrence of bifurcation is the length which the “streamer” has to travel around the obstacle, and not the dimension of the obstacle in the direction orthogonal to the motion of the vortex. Collisions of oceanic mesoscale vortices with seamounts often result in major modifications of their structure, having significant impacts on the redistribution of water properties. Observations of a “Meddy” bifurcating after colliding with the Irving Seamount in the Canary Basin show behavior similar to these idealized laboratory experiments. This suggests that these results could be used to explain and predict the outcome of a vortex colliding with seamounts of varying geometry in the ocean.